Abstract
Spawned by fast-paced progress in new materials and integrate circuit technology, the past two decades have witnessed tremendous development of humanoid robots for both scientific and commercial purposes, e.g. emergency response and daily life assistant. At the root of this trend are the increasing research interests and cooperation opportunities across different laboratories and countries. The application-driven requirements of high effectiveness and reliability of humanoid robots led intensive research and development in humanoid locomotion and control theories. In spite of the progress in the area, challenges such as unnatural locomotion control, inefficient multi-motion planning, and relatively slow disturbances recovery set further requirements for the next generation of humanoid robots. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to review the current development of highly representative bipedal humanoid robots and discuss the potential to move the ideas and models forward from laboratory settings into the real world. To this end, we also review the current clinical understanding of the walking and running dynamics to make the robot more human-like.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Wong E (2001) Lieh-Tzu: a taoist guide to practical living. Shambhala Publications, Boulder
Kato I (1973) Development of WABOT 1. Biomechanism 2:173–214
Neumann DA (2010) Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: foundations for rehabilitation. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Vaughan CL (2003) Theories of bipedal walking: an odyssey. J Biomech 36(4):513–523
Perry J, Burnfield J (2010) Gait analysis: normal and pathological function. SLACK Incorporated, London
Murray MP, Drought AB, Kory RC (1964) Walking patterns of normal men. J Bone Jt Surg 46(2):335–360
Service P, Department PT (2001) Observational gait analysis. Los Amigos Research and Education Institute Inc, Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center, Los Amgeles
Elftman H (1954) The functional structure of the lower limb. Human limbs and their substitutes. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 411–436
Winter DA (2009) Biomechanics and motor control of human movement. Wiley, New York
Ralston HJ (1965) Effects of immobilization of various body segments on the energy cost of human locomotion. In: The 2nd international congress on ergonomics, pp 53–60
Nordin M, Frankel VH (2001) Basic biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
Peeters K, Natsakis T, Burg J, Spaepen P, Jonkers I, Dereymaeker G, Vander Sloten J (2013) An in vitro approach to the evaluation of foot-ankle kinematics: performance evaluation of a custom-built gait simulator. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part H J Eng Med 227(9):955–967
Baxter JR, Sturnick DR, Demetracopoulos CA, Ellis SJ, Deland JT (2016) Cadaveric gait simulation reproduces foot and ankle kinematics from population-specific inputs. J Orthop Res 34(9):1663–1668
Sharkey NA, Hamel AJ (1998) A dynamic cadaver model of the stance phase of gait: performance characteristics and kinetic validation. Clin Biomech 13(6):420–433
Delp SL, Anderson FC, Arnold AS, Loan P, Habib A, John CT, Guendelman E, Thelen DG (2007) OpenSim: open-source software to create and analyze dynamic simulations of movement. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 54(11):1940–1950
Zajac FE, Gordon ME (1989) Determining muscle’s force and action in multi-articular movement. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 17(1):187–230
Bhargava LJ, Pandy MG, Anderson FC (2004) A phenomenological model for estimating metabolic energy consumption in muscle contraction. J Biomech 37(1):81–88
Kry PG, Pai DK (2006) Interaction capture and synthesis. ACM Trans Gr 25(3):872–880
Menegaldo LL, de Toledo FA, Weber HI (2004) Moment arms and musculotendon lengths estimation for a three-dimensional lower-limb model. J Biomech 37(9):1447–1453
Pratt GA, Williamson MM (1995) Series elastic actuators. In: 1995 IEEE/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS), IEEE, vol 1, pp 399–406
Paine N, Oh S, Sentis L (2014) Design and control considerations for high-performance series elastic actuators. IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron 19(3):1080–1091
Paluska DJ (2000) Design of a humanoid piped for walking research. Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Pratt J, Krupp B (2008) Design of a bipedal walking robot. In: Unmanned systems technology X, vol 6962. International Society for Optics and Photonics, p 69621F
Pratt J, Koolen T, De Boer T, Rebula J, Cotton S, Carff J, Johnson M, Neuhaus P (2012) Capturability-based analysis and control of legged locomotion, part 2: application to M2V2, a lower-body humanoid. Int J Robot Res 31(10):1117–1133
Kim D, Zhao Y, Thomas G, Fernandez BR, Sentis L (2016) Stabilizing series-elastic point-foot bipeds using whole-body operational space control. IEEE Trans Robot 32(6):1362–1379
Slovich M, Paine N, Kemper K, Metzger A, Edsinger A, Weber J, Sentis L (2012) HUME: a bipedal robot for human-centered hyper-agility. In: Dynamic walking conference, vol 4, p 2
Radford NA, Strawser P, Hambuchen K, Mehling JS, Verdeyen WK, Donnan AS, Holley J, Sanchez J, Nguyen V, Bridgwater L et al (2015) Valkyrie: NASA’s first bipedal humanoid robot. J Field Robot 32(3):397–419
Ramezani A, Grizzle JW (2012) ATRIAS 2.0, a new 3D bipedal robotic walker and runner. In: Adaptive mobile robotics. World Scientific, pp 467–474
Tsagarakis NG, Morfey S, Cerda GM, Zhibin L, Caldwell DG (2013) COMpliant huMANoid COMAN: Optimal joint stiffness tuning for modal frequency control. In: 2013 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), IEEE, pp 673–678
Tsagarakis NG, Caldwell DG, Negrello F, Choi W, Baccelliere L, Loc V, Noorden J, Muratore L, Margan A, Cardellino A et al (2017) WALK-MAN: a high-performance humanoid platform for realistic environments. J Field Robot 34(7):1225–1259
Negrello F, Garabini M, Catalano MG, Kryczka P, Choi W, Caldwell DG, Bicchi A, Tsagarakis NG (2016) WALK-MAN humanoid lower body design optimization for enhanced physical performance. In: 2016 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), IEEE, pp 1817–1824
Metta G, Sandini G, Vernon D, Natale L, Nori F (2008) The iCub humanoid robot: an open platform for research in embodied cognition. In: the 8th Workshop on performance metrics for intelligent systems. ACM, pp 50–56
Stephens BJ, Atkeson CG (2010) Dynamic balance force control for compliant humanoid robots. In: 2010 IEEE/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS), IEEE, pp 1248–1255
Feng S, Whitman E, Xinjilefu X, Atkeson CG (2014) Optimization based full body control for the Atlas robot. In: 2014 IEEE-RAS international conference on humanoid robots (humanoids), IEEE, pp 120–127
Koolen T, Smith J, Thomas G, Bertrand S, Carff J, Mertins N, Stephen D, Abeles P, Englsberger J, Mccrory S, et al (2013) Summary of team IHMC’s virtual robotics challenge entry. In: 2013 IEEE-RAS international conference on humanoid robots (humanoids), IEEE, pp 307–314
Kim JY, Atkeson CG, Hodgins JK, Bentivegna DC, Cho SJ (2007) Online gain switching algorithm for joint position control of a hydraulic humanoid robot. In: 2007 IEEE-RAS international conference on humanoid robots (humanoids), IEEE, pp 13–18
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2018) Atlas (robot). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(robot). Accessed 25 Mar 2019
Todd DJ (2013) Walking machines: an introduction to legged robots. Springer, NewYork
Li Y, Li B, Ruan J, Rong X (2011) Research of mammal bionic quadruped robots: a review. In: 2011 IEEE international conference on robotics, automation and mechatronics (RAM), IEEE, pp 166–171
Michael K (2012) Meet Boston Dynamics’ LS3-The latest robotic war machine
Semini C, Goldsmith J, Manfredi D, Calignano F, Ambrosio EP, Pakkanen J, Caldwell DG (2015) Additive manufacturing for agile legged robots with hydraulic actuation. In: 2015 IEEE international conference on advanced robotics (ICAR), IEEE, pp 123–129
Hutter M, Gehring C, Bloesch M, Hoepflinger MA, Remy CD, Siegwart R (2012) StarlETH: a compliant quadrupedal robot for fast, efficient, and versatile locomotion. In: Adaptive mobile robotics. World Scientific, pp 483–490
Fankhauser P, Hutter M (2018) ANYmal: a unique quadruped robot conquering harsh environments. Res Featur 126:54–57
Semini C, Barasuol V, Goldsmith J, Frigerio M, Focchi M, Gao Y, Caldwell DG (2017) Design of the hydraulically actuated, torque-controlled quadruped robot HyQ2Max. IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron 22(2):635–646
Vukobratović M, Borovac B (2004) Zero-moment point—thirty five years of its life. Int J Humanoid Robot 1(01):157–173
Sardain P, Bessonnet G (2004) Forces acting on a biped robot. Center of pressure-zero moment point. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern Part A Syst Hum 34(5):630–637
Kajita S, Kanehiro F, Kaneko K, Fujiwara K, Harada K, Yokoi K, Hirukawa H (2003) Biped walking pattern generation by using preview control of zero-moment point. In: 2003 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), vol 3, pp 1620–1626
Wieber PB (2006) Trajectory free linear model predictive control for stable walking in the presence of strong perturbations. In: 2006 IEEE-RAS international conference on humanoid robots (humanoids), IEEE, pp 137–142
Nishiwaki K, Kagami S (2010) Strategies for adjusting the ZMP reference trajectory for maintaining balance in humanoid walking. In: 2010 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), IEEE, pp 4230–4236
Feng S, Xinjilefu X, Huang W, Atkeson CG (2013) 3D walking based on online optimization. In: 2013 IEEE-RAS international conference on humanoid robots (humanoids), IEEE, pp 21–27
McGeer T (1990) Passive walking with knees. In: 1990 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), IEEE, pp 1640–1645
Tan F, Fu C, Chen K (2010) Biped blind walking on changing slope with reflex control system. In: 2010 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), IEEE, pp 1709–1714
Griffin RJ, Wiedebach G, Bertrand S, Leonessa A, Pratt J (2017) Walking stabilization using step timing and location adjustment on the humanoid robot, Atlas. In: 2017 IEEE/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS), IEEE, pp 667–673
Pratt J, Dilworth P, Pratt G (1997) Virtual model control of a bipedal walking robot. In: 1997 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), IEEE, vol 1, pp 193–198
Hopkins MA, Ressler SA, Lahr DF, Leonessa A, Hong DW (2015) Embedded joint-space control of a series elastic humanoid. In: 2015 IEEE/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS), IEEE, pp 3358–3365
Lohman EB III, Sackiriyas KSB, Swen RW (2011) A comparison of the spatiotemporal parameters, kinematics, and biomechanics between shod, unshod, and minimally supported running as compared to walking. Phys Ther Sport 12(4):151–163
Hasegawa H, Yamauchi T, Kraemer WJ (2007) Foot strike patterns of runners at the 15-km point during an elite-level half marathon. J Strength Cond Res 21(3):888
Liu GHZ, Chen MZQ, Chen Y, Huang L (2017) When joggers meet robots: a preliminary study on foot strike patterns. In: 2017 IEEE/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS), IEEE, pp 3971–3976
Daoud AI, Geissler GJ, Wang F, Saretsky J, Daoud YA, Lieberman DE (2012) Foot strike and injury rates in endurance runners: a retrospective study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 44(7):1325–34
Milner CE, Hamill J, Davis I (2007) Are knee mechanics during early stance related to tibial stress fracture in runners? Clin Biomech 22(6):697–703
Pohl MB, Mullineaux DR, Milner CE, Hamill J, Davis IS (2008) Biomechanical predictors of retrospective tibial stress fractures in runners. J Biomech 41(6):1160–1165
Pohl MB, Hamill J, Davis IS (2009) Biomechanical and anatomic factors associated with a history of plantar fasciitis in female runners. Clin J Sport Med 19(5):372–376
Williams DS III, McClay IS, Manal KT (2000) Lower extremity mechanics in runners with a converted forefoot strike pattern. J Appl Biomech 16(2):210–218
Englsberger J, Ott C, Albu-Schäffer A (2013) Three-dimensional bipedal walking control using divergent component of motion. In: 2013 IEEE/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS), IEEE, pp 2600–2607
Hirai K, Hirose M, Haikawa Y, Takenaka T (1998) The development of Honda humanoid robot. In: 1998 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), IEEE, vol 2, pp 1321–1326
Ota T, Ohara K, Ichikawa A, Kobayashi T, Hasegawa Y, Fukuda T (2016) Modeling of the high-speed running humanoid robot. In: 2016 International symposium on micro-nanomechatronics and human science (MHS), IEEE, pp 1–3
Zhang M, Xie SQ, Li X, Zhu G, Meng W, Huang X, Veale AJ (2018) Adaptive patient-cooperative control of a compliant ankle rehabilitation robot (CARR) with enhanced training safety. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 65(2):1398–1407
Zhang M, Davies TC, Xie S (2013) Effectiveness of robot-assisted therapy on ankle rehabilitation—a systematic review. J Neuroeng Rehabil 10(1):30
Park YL, Chen BR, Pérez-Arancibia NO, Young D, Stirling L, Wood RJ, Goldfield EC, Nagpal R (2014) Design and control of a bio-inspired soft wearable robotic device for ankle-foot rehabilitation. Bioinspir Biom 9(1):016007
Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by the Research Grants Committee, Hong Kong, through the General Research Fund under Grant 17251716.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
George H. Z. Liu, Michael Z. Q. Chen, and Yonghua Chen declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Human and animal rights
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Liu, G.H.Z., Chen, M.Z.Q. & Chen, Y. When joggers meet robots: the past, present, and future of research on humanoid robots. Bio-des. Manuf. 2, 108–118 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42242-019-00038-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42242-019-00038-7