Abstract
The discharge of inadequately treated municipal wastewater has aggravated the pollution load in developing countries including Ethiopia. Conventional wastewater treatment methods that require high capital and operational costs are not affordable for many developing nations, including Ethiopia. This study aimed to investigate the performance of two high-rate algal ponds (HRAPs) in organic pollutant removal from primary settled municipal wastewater under highland tropical climate conditions in Addis Ababa. The experiment was done for 2 months at hydraulic retention times (HRTs) ranging from 2 to 8 days using an organic loading rates ranging 333–65 kg \( {\text{BOD}}_{5} \)/ha/day using two HRAPs, 250 and 300 mm deep, respectively. In this experiment, Chlorella sp., Chlamydomonas sp., and Scenedesmus sp., the class of Chlorophyceae, were identified as the dominant species. Chlorophyll-a production was higher in the shallower ponds (250 mm) throughout the course of the study, whereas the deeper HRAP (300 mm) showed better dissolved oxygen production. The maximum COD and \( {\text{BOD}}_{5} \) removal of 78.03 and 81.8% was achieved at a 6-day HRT operation in the 250-mm-deep HRAP. Therefore, the 300-mm-deep HRAP is promising for scaling up organic pollutant removal from municipal wastewater at a daily average organic loading rate of 109.3 kg \( {\text{BOD}}_{5} \)/ha/day and a 6-day HRT. We conclude that the removal of organic pollutants in HRAP can be controlled by pond depth, organic loading rate, and HRT.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
APHA (American Public Health Association) (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20th edn. American Public Health Association, Washington DC
Assemany PP, Calijuri ML, Aguiar E De, Henrique M, Souza B De, Silva NC, Santiago F (2015) Algae/bacteria consortium in high rate ponds: influence of solar radiation on the phytoplankton community. Ecol Eng 77:154–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.01.026
Boelee NC, Temmink H, Janssen M, Buisman CJN, Wijffels RH (2014) Balancing the organic load and light supply in symbiotic microalgal–bacterial biofilm reactors treating synthetic municipal wastewater. Ecol Eng 64:213–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.12.035
Butler E, Suleiman M, Ahmad A, Lu RL (2017) Oxidation pond for municipal wastewater treatment. Appl Water Sci 7:31–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-015-0285-z
Cai T, Park SY, Li Y (2013) Nutrient recovery from wastewater streams by microalgae: status and prospects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 19:360–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.030
Chan YJ, Chong MF, Law CL, Hassell DG (2009) A review on anaerobic–aerobic treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater. Chem Eng J 155:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2009.06.041
Craggs RJ, Heubeck S, Lundquist TJ, Benemann JR, Zealand N, Luis S, Creek W (2007) Potential for algae biofuel from wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds in New Zealand. Water Sci Technol 7:1–8
Craggs R, Sutherland D, Campbell H (2012) Hectare-scale demonstration of high rate algal ponds for enhanced wastewater treatment and biofuel production. J Appl Phycol 24:329–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-012-9810-8
Craggs R, Park J, Heubeck S, Sutherland D (2014) High rate algal pond systems for low-energy wastewater treatment, nutrient recovery and energy production. NZ J Bot 52:37–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/0028825X.2013.861855
Cromar NJ, Fallowfield HJ (1997) Effect of nutrient loading and retention time on performance of high rate algal ponds. J Appl Phycol 9:301–309
EEPA (Ethiopian Environmental Protection Agency) (2003) The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia; Environmental protection Agency: standards for effluent discharge regulations. EEPA (Ethiopian Environmental Protection Agency), Addis Ababa
Faleschini M, Esteves JL, Valero MAC (2012) The effects of hydraulic and organic loadings on the performance of a full-scale facultative pond in a temperate climate region (Argentine Patagonia). Water Air Soil Pollut 223:2483–2493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-011-1041-0
Garcia J (2000) High rate algal pond operating strategies for urban wastewater nitrogen removal. J Appl Phycol 12(3–5):331–339
Godos I De, Blanco S, García-encina PA, Becares E, Muñoz R (2009) Long-term operation of high rate algal ponds for the bioremediation of piggery wastewaters at high loading rates. Biores Technol 100(19):4332–4339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.04.016
Grobbelaar JU (2010) Microalgal biomass production: challenges and realities. Photosynth Res 106:135–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11120-010-9573-5
He PJ, Mao B, Lü F, Shao LM, Lee DJ, Chang JS (2013) The combined effect of bacteria and Chlorella vulgaris on the treatment of municipal wastewaters. Biores Technol 146:562–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.07.111
Hoffmann JP (1998) Minireview wastewater treatment with suspended and no suspended algae. J Phycol 763:757–763
Kaya D, Dilek FB, Gökçay CF (2007) Reuse of lagoon effluents in agriculture by post-treatment in a step feed dual treatment process. Desalination 215:29–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.11.013
Kim BH, Kang Z, Ramanan R, Choi JE, Cho DH, Oh HM, Kim HS (2014) Nutrient removal and biofuel production in high rate algal pond using real municipal wastewater. J Microbiol Biotechnol 24:1123–1132. https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.1312.12057
Larsdotter K (2006) Microalgae for phosphorus removal from wastewater in a Nordic climate. A doctoral thesis from the School of Biotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Lorenzen C (1966) A method for the continuous measurement of in vivo chlorophyll concentration. Deep-Sea Res 13:223–227
Lundquist TJ, Woertz IC, Quinn NWT, Benemann AR (2010) A realistic technology and engineering assessment of algae biofuel production. Energy Biosci Inst Univ Calif, Berkeley
Mayo AW, Hanai EE (2014) Dynamics of nitrogen transformation and removal in a pilot high rate pond. Water Water Resour Prot 6:433–445
Mehrabadi A, Craggs R, Farid MM (2015) Wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds (WWT HRAP) for low-cost biofuel production. Biores Technol 184:202–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.11.004
Metcalf-eddy (2003) Wastewater engineering treatment and reuse, 4th edn. McGraw-Hill Education, New Work
MoWIE (Ministry of Water Irrigation and Energy) (2015) Urban Wastewater Management Strategy. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. MoWIE (Ministry of Water Irrigation and Energy), Addis Ababa
Mun R, Guieysse B (2006) Algal–bacterial processes for the treatment of hazardous contaminants: a review. Water Res 40:2799–2815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.06.011
Murray A, Ray I, Nelson KL (2009) An innovative sustainability assessment for urban wastewater infrastructure and its application in Chengdu, China. J Environ Manage 90:3553–3560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.06.009
Nurdogan Y, Oswald WJ (1995) Enhanced nutrient removal in high-rate ponds. Water Sci Technol 31:33–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-1223(95)00490-E
Olguın EJ (2003) Phycoremediation: key issues for cost-effective nutrient removal processes. Biotechnol Adv 22:81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2003.08.009
Olguín EJ (2012) Dual purpose microalgae–bacteria-based systems that treat wastewater and produce biodiesel and chemical products within a Biore fi nery. Biotechnol Adv 30:1031–1046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.05.001
Olukanni DO, Ducoste JJ (2011) Optimization of waste stabilization pond design for developing nations using computational fluid dynamics. Ecol Eng 37:1878–1888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2011.06.003
Park JBK, Craggs RJ, Shilton AN (2011) Wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds for biofuel production. Biores Technol 102(1):35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.06.158
Pittman JK, Dean AP, Osundeko O (2011) The potential of sustainable algal biofuel production using wastewater resources. Biores Technol 102:17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.06.035
Rawat R Ranjith, Kumar T, Mutanda FB (2011) Dual role of microalgae: phycoremediation of domestic wastewater and biomass production for sustainable biofuels production. Appl Energy 88:3411–3424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.11.025
Rawat SK, Gupta A, Shriwastav P, Singh S, Kumari FB (2016) Microalgae applications in wastewater products and processes. In: Yusuf C, Bux F (eds) Algae biotechnology products and processes. Springer, Swetherland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12334-9
Razzak SA, Hossain MM, Lucky RA, Bassi AS, Lasa H De (2013) Integrated CO2 capture, wastewater treatment and biofuel production by microalgae culturing—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 27:622–653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.063
Renuka N, Sood A, Ratha SK (2013) Evaluation of microalgal consortia for treatment of primary treated sewage effluent and biomass production. J Appl Phycol 25:1529–1537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-013-9982-x
Renuka N, Sood A, Prasanna R, Ahluwalia AS (2015) Phycoremediation of wastewaters: a synergistic approach using microalgae for bioremediation and biomass generation. Int J Environ Sci Technol 12:1443–1460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-014-0700-2
Reynolds CS (2012) Environmental requirements and habitat preferences of phytoplankton: chance and certainty in species selection. Biotanica Marina 55:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1515/BOT.2011.121
Sutherland DL, Howard-williams C, Turnbull MH, Broady PA, Craggs RJ (2014a) Seasonal variation in light utilisation, biomass production and nutrient removal by wastewater microalgae in a full-scale high-rate algal pond. J Appl Phycol 9(26):1317–1329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-013-0142-0
Sutherland DL, Turnbull MH, Broady PA, Craggs RJ (2014b) Wastewater microalgal production, nutrient removal and physiological adaptation in response to changes in mixing frequency. Water Res 61:130–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.05.011
Sutherland DL, Turnbull MH, Craggs RJ (2014c) Increased pond depth improves algal productivity and nutrient removal in wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds. Water Res 53:271–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.025
Sutherland DL, Montemezzani V, Howard-williams C, Turnbull MH, Broady PA, Craggs RJ (2015) Modifying the high rate algal pond light environment and its effects on light absorption and photosynthesis. Water Res 70:86–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.11.050
Troyer N De, Mereta ST, Goethals PLM, Boets P (2016) Water quality assessment of streams and wetlands in a fast growing East African city. Water 8:1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8040123
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (2011) Principles of design and operations of wastewater treatment pond systems for plant operators, engineers, and managers. EPA/600/R-11/088, August 2011. Cincinnati, Ohio: Land Remediation and Pollution Control Division National Risk Management Research Laboratory Office of Research and Development. www.epa.gov/nrmrl. Accessed 15 Feb 2016
Wang L, Min M, Li Y, Chen P, Chen Y, Liu Y et al (2010) Cultivation of green algae Chlorella sp. in different wastewaters from municipal wastewater treatment plant. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-009-8866-7
Wang T, Omosa IB, Chiramba T (2014) Water and wastewater treatment in Africa—current practices and challenges. Clean Soil Air Water 42:1029–1035. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.201300208
Acknowledgements
We like to thank the Ethiopian Institute of Water Resources, Addis Ababa University, for supervising financial support given by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under the USAID/HED grant in the Africa–US Higher Education Initiative—HED 052-9740-ETH-11-01. We would also like to thank DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Auslandsdienst, Budgetary Sec. 334400074, Code No. A/14/93535) for additional financial support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Alemu, K., Assefa, B., Kifle, D. et al. Removal of Organic Pollutants from Municipal Wastewater by Applying High-Rate Algal Pond in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Earth Syst Environ 2, 377–386 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-018-0050-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-018-0050-1