Abstract
Faith schools in England are associated with particular interpretive traditions within a religion. There are Catholic schools and Anglican Schools, for example. Similarly, what are called the Islamic schools are actually along the lines of madhabs or maslaks such as Deobandi, Barelvi, Ithna ashari Shia schools. Further, there are no inter-faith schools; no schools that are run by different faiths together. The above observations raise a question. How do faith schools teach about the religious other – both about other denominations within their own religious tradition and about the other religious traditions? The question was also raised in the context of a recent Ofsted report on independent faith schools which concluded that “although most schools taught a general understanding of other faiths…many of the schools visited were reluctant to teach about other faiths in great detail” (Ofsted 2009, Independent faith schools, p. 4). This chapter provides the results of exploratory research based on the above question with a focus on Muslim faith schools in England. The findings, based on the interviews of teachers, interfaith educators, classroom observations and the analysis of educational materials, are situated within the context of the wide range of attitudes towards religious diversity found in Muslim societies, past and present. Pedagogical and theological implications of teaching the religious other in faith schools are also examined. The findings show that at least some Muslim faith schools are giving serious attention to this area but their efforts are limited by certain factors such as lack of sound educational materials and limited engagement with philosophical and theological issues around the question of religious diversity.
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Notes
- 1.
The Education (Independent Schools Standards) (England) Regulations 2010.
- 2.
It is estimated that no more than 5–7 % of Muslim children in the UK attend Muslim faith schools. Though it is possible that lack of supply has much to do with it and the number of those wishing to send their children to Muslim faith schools is significantly higher. Still faith schools are an object of debate among Muslims themselves as many are not in favour of separate faith schools.
- 3.
These two goals of faith schools can sometimes be in conflict as well, as discussed in Panjwani (2012).
- 4.
Available at http://www.alfalahschool.org.uk/curriculum.html [accessed on February 10, 2013].
- 5.
Available at http://igs.1mno.co.uk/component/content/article/124-welcome. [accessed on February 10, 2013].
- 6.
Shi’a and Sunni are the two major doctrinal groups among Muslims. Both are internally varied. The Shi’as of different types share the belief that upon his death Prophet Muhammad appointed ‘Ali as his successor. This belief distinguishes them from what came to be known as the Sunni communities who believe that the Prophet left it to Muslims to choose their leader.
- 7.
The formula peace be upon him is often spoken or written by Muslims whenever the Prophets name is mentioned.
- 8.
On occasions the term includes the Sabeans and Zoroastrians as well (Qur’an 22:17).
- 9.
‘Those who believe, and those who are the Jews, and the Christians and the Sabians – any who believe in Allah and the Last Day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve’ (Qur’an 2:62).
- 10.
‘O you who believe, do not take the Jews and the Christians as allies. They are allies of one another. And whoever is an ally to them among you – then indeed he [one] of them. Allah guides not the wrongdoing people.’ (Qu’ran 5:51).
- 11.
The Qu’ran has a complex attitude towards the sacred books of Christianity and Judiasm. In general, it can be said that the Qu’ran views the then existing books as a mixture of original revelation, distortions and omissions. This is called Tahreef (2:79; 4:46; 5:14).
- 12.
Though the overall stance in the Qu’ran towards Christians is milder and more positive than towards Jews, Waardenburg is probably right to note that ‘…the definitive Qu’ranic judgement of Jews and Christians appears to be eschatologically suspended. It is simply left to God’s final judgement at the end of history’ (Waardenburg 1999b. p9).
- 13.
In Christian context, the title of a book by Hugo Grotius (d. 1645) well captures the attitude: True Religion Explained and Defended against ye Archenemies therof in these Times.
- 14.
Though Islamic mysticism, of Sufism, is today often projected as an antidote to exclusivist and extremist interpretations of Islam, it is important to note that Sufis themselves were of many types, including some who are exclusivists. Many were open to mystical approaches within different religions but had very difficult and polemical interactions with other claimants to truth such as the philosophers, the Traditionalists (Muhaddithun) and the law makers (Fuqaha).
- 15.
The scope of the term changed over time and by the early modern period it included almost all non-Muslims.
- 16.
Dara Shikoh is regarded as a champion of religious plurality seeking coexistence of multiple religious traditions in South Asia. His work Majma al-bahrain (The Commingling of the Two Oceans) is arguably the best example of attempts to develop metaphysical unit among different religious tradition. The ‘two oceans’ here refer to Sufism (Islamic mysticism) and the Vedantic thought in the Hindu tradition.
- 17.
UUnlike in its Qu’ranic and early Muslim historical usage, the term kafir has now acquired a much wider currency, particularly in the Jihadi discourse. Once someone is labelled a Kafir, legal ways can be found to justify her killing.
- 18.
In other schools, teachers were reluctant to talk about intra-Islamic diversity. When asked, the teachers would interpret it to mean ethnic diversity and refer to pupils from different cultures. Given the sensitivities involved, the researcher did not press further.
- 19.
Available at http://www.theoxfordfoundation.com/#!ompep/c1pna [accessed February 12, 2013].
- 20.
The book argues that the labels good and bad Muslims are political and not religious. They have nothing to do with how one reads the Qu’ran or performs rituals. Rather they have to do with the political orientation towards America: good Muslims are westernised, ‘modernized’ and secular while bad Muslims are medieval, fanatic and antiwest. Mamdani makes this claim by presenting a socio-political history of what has come to be known as Islamic terrorism, show how today’s bad Muslims were yesterday’s good Muslims.
- 21.
The ICE project (Islam and Citizenship) was yet another source of resources for some teachers. Available as: http://www.theiceproject.sdsa.net/index.php [accessed on February 13, 2013].
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Panjwani, F. (2014). Faith-Schools and the Religious Other: The Case of Muslim Schools. In: Chapman, J., McNamara, S., Reiss, M., Waghid, Y. (eds) International Handbook of Learning, Teaching and Leading in Faith-Based Schools. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8972-1_7
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