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Managing the Risks of Being a Victim of Severe Labour Exploitation: Before and After the Modern Slavery Act 2015

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Labour Migration in Europe Volume II

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Abstract

The severe labour exploitation of workers in the EU can be tackled by addressing the factors that increase the risk of being subjected to exploitative working conditions. This chapter seeks to further elaborate upon this claim by focusing upon the views of experts who have significant involvement in monitoring, tackling and combating labour exploitation in England and Wales. Through the identification of the principal risks that impact upon an individual’s vulnerability to severe labour exploitation, this chapter discusses some of the measures that can be implemented to manage the risks, such as regulation of recruitment agencies, implementation of pre-departure programmes, raising awareness amongst workers of their employment rights and better labour inspection and enforcement of minimum wage legislation. Recommendations are made on how to better manage the risks of labour exploitation, taking into account relevant law and policy developments, such as the development of new immigration and labour market enforcement measures.

Amy Weatherburn is PhD Researcher, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Tilburg University, Former University of Nottingham, Human Rights Law Centre (HRLC) Research Assistant (2012–2014) and Dr Alex Toft is a Research Fellow at Coventry University.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    European Union Agency for Fundamental Human Rights (FRA), severe labour exploitation: workers moving within or into the European Union, June 2015, http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2015/severe-labour-exploitation-workers-moving-within-or-european-union, pp. 13–14, pp. 43–52. See also literature on addressing risk and protective factors: Ball, Rochelle, Beacroft, Laura, Lindley, Jade, ‘Australia’s Pacific Seasonal Worker Pilot Scheme: Managing vulnerabilities to exploitation’ Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, Nov 2011, Issue 432, pp. 1–8.

  2. 2.

    See also Weatherburn, A., and Toft, A., ‘Managing the Risks of Being a Victim of Severe Labour Exploitation: Findings from a Research Project Exploring the Views of Experts in the UK’ (2016)45(2) Industrial Law Journal 257–262.

  3. 3.

    FRA, severe forms of labour exploitation—country data, http://fra.europa.eu/en/country-reports-selex, accessed 1 September 2017.

  4. 4.

    FRA, Social Fieldwork Research (FRANET) Severe forms of Labour Exploitation Supporting victims of severe forms of labour exploitation in having access to justice in EU Member States United Kingdom, 2014, http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/severe-labour-exploitation-country_uk.pdf.

  5. 5.

    Stronger2gether, http://stronger2gether.org/, accessed 1 September 2017.

  6. 6.

    Department for Business and Skills, National Minimum Wage: Final government evidence for the Low Pay Commission’s 2015 Report January 2015.

  7. 7.

    Modern Slavery Act 2015; Immigration Act 2016; United Kingdom Labour Market Enforcement Strategy—Introductory Report 1 April 2016–31 March 2017 Director of Labour Market Enforcement David Metcalf Presented to Parliament pursuant to Section 5 (1) of the Immigration Act 2016 July 2017; Home Office, Immigration Act 2016 Factsheet—labour market enforcement (Sections 1–33) (July 2016), https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/537203/Immigration_Act-_Part_1_-_Labour_Market_Enforcement.pdf, accessed 1 September 2017.

  8. 8.

    FRA, Social Fieldwork Research (FRANET) Severe forms of Labour Exploitation Supporting victims of severe forms of labour exploitation in having access to justice in EU Member States United Kingdom, 2014, http://fra.europa.eu/en/country-reports-selex, accessed 1 September 2017. The University of Nottingham Human Rights Law Centre, FRANET UK Contractor, http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/hrlc/research/fra.aspx, accessed 1 September 2017.

  9. 9.

    FRA, Severe forms of labour exploitation—country data, http://fra.europa.eu/en/country-reports-selex, accessed 1 September 2017.

  10. 10.

    FRA SELEX Report, June 2015.

  11. 11.

    Ibid., pp. 34–36.

  12. 12.

    Department for Business innovation and Skills & Home Office, Tackling Exploitation in the Labour market—Consultation, October 2015, https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/labour-market-exploitation-improving-enforcement, accessed 1 September 2017, p. 13.

  13. 13.

    Nick Clark, “Detecting and Tackling Forced Labour in Europe” (Joseph Rowntree Foundation, June 2013); Anti-slavery international, “Trafficking for Forced Labour in Europe: Report on a Study in the UK, Ireland, the Czech Republic and Portugal,” 2006; Anderson and Rogaly, “Forced Labour and Migration to the UK” (COMPAS, 2005).

  14. 14.

    Section 3, Gangmasters Licensing Act 2004.

  15. 15.

    Transition to the GLAA, http://www.gla.gov.uk/whats-new/transition-to-the-glaa/, accessed 1 September 2017.

  16. 16.

    CN v UK [2010] (Application no. 4239/08).

  17. 17.

    Siliadin v France [2005] (Application no. 73316/01).

  18. 18.

    Stoyanova, V., ‘Article 4 of the ECHR and the obligation of criminalizing slavery, servitude, forced labour and human trafficking’ (2014) Cambridge Journal of International and Comparative Law 3(2), 407–433, pp. 435–436; Keane, D., ‘Abolitionist in hear but not in action: slavery, servitude and the status of Article 4 ECHR in Irish law’ (2013) Irish Jurist 50, 166–198, pp. 176–177.

  19. 19.

    Centre for Social Justice, It Happens Here Equipping the United Kingdom to fight modern slavery, 2013; Anti-Trafficking Monitoring Group, In the Dock: Examining the UK’s Criminal Justice Response to Trafficking, 2013; Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Report by OSCE Special Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, SEC.GAL/200/11, 18 January 2012; Council of Europe Experts Group on Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA), Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the United Kingdom, 2012; Home Office, Report on the Internal Review of Human Trafficking Legislation, 2012.

  20. 20.

    Home Office, Modern Slavery Strategy, 2014, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/383764/Modern_Slavery_Strategy_FINAL_DEC2015.pdf, accessed 1 September 2017.

  21. 21.

    Section 2, Modern Slavery Act 2015.

  22. 22.

    Section 1, Modern Slavery Act 2015.

  23. 23.

    Office of National Statistics, Contracts that do not guarantee a minimum number of hours: September 2016, 8 September 2016, p. 6, available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/articles/contractsthatdonotguaranteeaminimumnumberofhours/september2016 [last accessed 16 February 2017]; Trade Union Congress, Living on the Edge: The rise of job insecurity in modern Britain, December 2016, p. 15, available at: https://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/Living%20on%20the%20Edge%202016.pdf [last accessed 15 February 2017]; Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Committee, Working practices at Sports Direct inquiry, https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmbis/219/219.pdf?utm_source=219&utm_medium=module&utm_campaign=modulereports [last accessed 15 February 2017]; Citizens Advice Bureau, Neither one thing nor the other: how reducing bogus self-employment could benefit workers, business and the Exchequer, August 2015, p. 12, available at: https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/Global/CitizensAdvice/Work%20Publications/Neither%20one%20thing%20nor%20the%20other.pdf [last accessed 17 February 2017]; The Independent Review of Employment Practices in the Modern Economy, 30 October 2016, available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/groups/employment-practices-in-the-modern-economy [last accessed 17 February 2017].

  24. 24.

    The draft modern slavery bill was published in December 2013 at the same time as the publication of the findings of the Modern Slavery Evidence Review conducted by Frank Field MP between October 2013 and December 2013. The Modern Slavery Bill passed through parliament between June 2014 and March 2015. The current research was conducted between October 2013 and January 2014.

  25. 25.

    Section 71, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (England, Wales and Northern Ireland); Section 47, Criminal Justice and Licensing (Scotland) Act 2010 (Scotland).

  26. 26.

    Section 4, Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants etc.) Act 2004.

  27. 27.

    Craig, G., The UK’s Modern Slavery Legislation: An Early Assessment of Progress, Social Inclusion 2017, Volume 5, Issue 2, Pages 16–27.

  28. 28.

    FLEX, Lost in Transition: Brexit & Labour Exploitation, August 2017—FLEX & the Labour Exploitation Advisory Group.

  29. 29.

    FRA SELEX Report, June 2015, pp. 13–14, pp. 43–52.

  30. 30.

    Austria, p. 29; Belgium, p. 24; Bulgaria, p. 28; Cyprus, p. 23; Czech Republic, p. 23; Finland, p. 27; France, p. 26 & p. 28; Germany, p. 48; Greece, p. 45; Hungary, p. 29; Ireland, p. 33; Italy, p. 26; Lithuania, p. 38; The Netherlands, pp. 26–27; Poland, p. 30; Portugal, p. 29; Slovakia, p. 72; Spain, p. 24; UK, p. 37, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015, http://fra.europa.eu/en/country-reports-selex, accessed 1 September 2017.

  31. 31.

    UK, p. 37, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  32. 32.

    Ibid.

  33. 33.

    Czech Republic, p. 20; Lithuania, p. 24; Malta, p. 33; The Netherlands, p. 34; Spain, p. 19, FRA SELEX country data.

  34. 34.

    Finland, p. 21, France, p. 28; Germany, p. 21; Italy, p. 21; Malta, p. 34; Poland, p. 36; Portugal, p. 27. For the UK, see for instance the increased vulnerability created by the six-month Domestic Workers in Private Household Visa, UK, p. 24 & p. 31, FRA SELEX country data.

  35. 35.

    Ireland, p. 34, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  36. 36.

    UK, p. 31; Italy, p. 21, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  37. 37.

    The Netherlands, p. 35, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  38. 38.

    Greece, p. 32, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  39. 39.

    Cyprus, p. 21; France, p. 27, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  40. 40.

    Austria, p. 26; Croatia, p. 16; Czech Republic, p. 19; Cyprus, p. 21; Finland, p. 2; Germany, p. 21; Hungary, p. 27; Ireland, p. 33; Italy, p. 25; Lithuania, p. 26; Malta, p. 33; The Netherlands, p. 26; Poland, p. 32 & p. 35; Slovakia, p. 42, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  41. 41.

    UK, p. 30, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  42. 42.

    UK, p. 30, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  43. 43.

    Greece, p. 32, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  44. 44.

    UK, p. 37, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  45. 45.

    UK, p. 32, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  46. 46.

    Austria, p. 26; Bulgaria, p. 27; Finland, p. 20; Greece, p. 43; Lithuania, p. 25 & p. 27; Malta, p. 32; The Netherlands, p. 33; Poland, p. 35; Portugal, p. 25; Slovakia, p. 42; Spain, p. 20, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  47. 47.

    Finland, p. 22, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  48. 48.

    UK, p. 31, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  49. 49.

    UK, p. 55, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  50. 50.

    FRA SELEX Report, June 2015, pp. 44–45.

  51. 51.

    Belgium, p. 28; Bulgaria, p. 26; Cyprus, p. 20; Czech Republic, p. 21; Finland, p. 21; France, p. 29; Germany, p. 21; Hungary, p. 21; Ireland, p. 32; Italy, p. 24; Lithuania, p. 26; The Netherlands, p. 37; Poland, p. 32; Portugal, p. 28; Slovakia, p. 37, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  52. 52.

    UK, p. 33, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  53. 53.

    UK, p. 33, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  54. 54.

    UK, p. 47, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  55. 55.

    UK, p. 51, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  56. 56.

    Austria, p. 45; Belgium, p. 27; Bulgaria, p. 26; Croatia, p. 24; Finland, p. 21; Ireland, p. 32; Italy, p. 25; Lithuania, p. 26; Malta, p. 35; Portugal, p. 28; Spain, p. 22, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  57. 57.

    Belgium, p. 27; Croatia, p. 14; Ireland, p. 32; Spain, p. 22, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  58. 58.

    Cyprus, p. 20; Spain, p. 22 & p. 23, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  59. 59.

    Cyprus, p. 20; Italy, p. 24; Malta, p. 34; Slovakia, p. 38, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  60. 60.

    Finland, p. 22; the Netherlands, p. 36, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  61. 61.

    Belgium, p. 23; France, p. 30, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  62. 62.

    Austria, p. 26, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  63. 63.

    UK, p. 17, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  64. 64.

    UK, p. 59, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  65. 65.

    Greece, p. 37; Hungary, p. 28; Slovakia, p. 36, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  66. 66.

    The Netherlands, p. 37, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  67. 67.

    UK, p. 36, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  68. 68.

    Ibid.

  69. 69.

    Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner Strategic Plan 2015–2017, p. 26.

  70. 70.

    Health and Safety Executive (2010) Tool Inspection Pack for Migrant Workers, page 8, www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/fod/inspect/migrantworker.pdf, accessed 1 September 2017.

  71. 71.

    HMRC, National Minimum Wage compliance in the social care sector, p. 5, November 2013, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/262269/131125_Social_Care_Evaluation_2013_ReportNov2013PDF.PDF/, accessed 28 January 2015.

  72. 72.

    HMRC, Government names and shames 37 National Minimum Wage offenders, Press Release, 15 January 2015, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-names-and-shames-37-national-minimum-wage-offenders, accessed 1 September 2017. See also, United Kingdom Labour Market Enforcement Strategy—Introductory Report 1 April 2016–31 March 2017 Director of Labour Market Enforcement David Metcalf Presented to Parliament pursuant to Section 5 (1) of the Immigration Act 2016 July 2017, p. 20.

  73. 73.

    Netherlands, p. 34, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  74. 74.

    UK, p. 4, FRA SELEX country data, August 2015.

  75. 75.

    Two Little Girls, http://www.twolittlegirls.org/, accessed 1 September 2017.

  76. 76.

    Stronger2gether, http://stronger2gether.org/, accessed 1 September 2017.

  77. 77.

    Focus on Labour Exploitation, Forced Labour Monitoring Group, the Wilberforce Institute for the Study of Slavery & Emancipation, The Institute for Human Rights and Business, and the Human Trafficking Foundation.

  78. 78.

    Modern Slavery Act, 2015. NB in the devolved administrations of the UK, the following legislation was introduced: in Northern Ireland, the Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Criminal Justice and Support for Victims) Act (Northern Ireland) 2015 was enacted in January 2015; and in Scotland, the Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Scotland) Act 2015.

  79. 79.

    Immigration Bill (HC Bill 74) [2014–2015].

  80. 80.

    FLEX, The UK’s new immigration bill creates perfect conditions for slavery to thrive, 28 August 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/aug/28/slavery-uk-immigration-act-2014-hostile-environment-undocumented-migrants-focus-on-labour-exploitation-flex, accessed 1 September 2017.

  81. 81.

    Ibid.

  82. 82.

    Previously Section 15 of the Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006 which prohibited the employment of adults who are subject to immigration control and do not have leave to enter or remain in the UK, or who are subject to a condition preventing them from undertaking employment. The prohibition is supported through both a civil penalty regime and a criminal sanction for employers of illegal workers, which replaced section 8 of the Asylum and Immigration Act 1996 which first made it a criminal offence to employ illegal workers.

  83. 83.

    Section 35(4), Immigration Act 2016; ANNE Davies, The Immigration Act 2016. Industrial Law Journal, Volume 45, Issue 3, 1 September 2016, pp. 431–442, p. 438.

  84. 84.

    Immigration Act 2014: Chapter 1 Part 3 (right to rent scheme); Sections 46 and 47 (entitlement to driving licences); section 40 (access to financial services).

  85. 85.

    Section 39–42, Immigration Act 2016.

  86. 86.

    Section 45, Immigration Act 2016.

  87. 87.

    Section 43–44, Immigration Act 2016.

  88. 88.

    Section 48, Seizure and retention in relation to offences, Immigration Act 2016; Home Office, Immigration Act 2016 Factsheet—Labour market enforcement (Sections 1–33) (July 2016), available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/537203/Immigration_Act-_Part_1_-_Labour_Market_Enforcement.pdf [last accessed 15 February 2017].

  89. 89.

    Section 34(3), Immigration Act 2016.

  90. 90.

    Johanna Walsh, Mellissa Curzon-Berners, New criminal offence for illegal workers—will it have any impact?, 25 May 2015, Criminal Law blog, available at: https://www.kingsleynapley.co.uk/comment/blogs/criminal-law-blog/new-criminal-offence-for-illegal-workers-will-it-have-any-impact [last accessed 16 February 2017].

  91. 91.

    R v Carter and Others [2006] EWCA Crim 416; DPP’s “Guidance for Prosecutors on the Discretion to Instigate Confiscation Proceedings” 28 May 2009, available at: https://www.cps.gov.uk/news/assets/uploads/files/prosecutors_discretion_280509.pdf [last accessed 16 February 2017].

  92. 92.

    In 2012, the Supreme Court found the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 not to be in compliance with the Section 3 of the Human Rights Act 1998 as it was held to be incompatible with Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 of the European Convention on Human Rights, see R v Waya [2012] UKSC 51, para. 83. Further, Subsequently in 2014, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the confiscation of the wages of an irregular migrant constituted a violation of the right to peaceful enjoyment of possessions under Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the European Convention on Human Rights, see Paulet v The United Kingdom [2014] (Application no. 6219/08), paras 63–69.

  93. 93.

    Section 34(3)(a), Immigration Act 2016.

  94. 94.

    Migration Rights Network (MRN) (25 August 2015) “Response to government announcement on ramping up enforcement action,” Migrant Rights Network, available at: http://www.migrantsrights.org.uk/news/2015/mrn-response-government-announcement-ramping-enforcement-action [last accessed 16 February 2017].

  95. 95.

    Clause 8, Immigration Bill (HC Bill 74) [2015].

  96. 96.

    Originally piloted under Immigration Act 2014 in West Midlands, December 2014.

  97. 97.

    European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, FRA Severe Labour Exploitation, p. 51, http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2015-severe-labour-exploitation_en.pdf [last accessed 15 February 2017].

  98. 98.

    Weatherburn, A., “Using an integrated human rights-based approach” (2016) 2 European Human Rights Law Review 184–194, p. 189.

  99. 99.

    In the pilot scheme, a total of 13 referral notices from enforcement staff members were sent by the end of the six-month evaluation period. As a result of these, five civil penalty notices had been issued. The total value of these penalties was £3480. Eight cases have been given a ‘no action’ notice. Home Office, Evaluation of the Right to Rent scheme Full evaluation report of phase one, p. 15.

  100. 100.

    In total, 109 individuals who were in the UK illegally were identified, of whom 63 were previously unknown to the Home Office. Home Office, Evaluation of the Right to Rent scheme Full evaluation report of phase one, p. 19.

  101. 101.

    Department for Business, Innovation and Skills & Home Office, Tackling exploitation in the labour market, Public Consultation, October 2015, Ministerial Foreword by Home Secretary Theresa May, p. 6, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/471048/BIS-15-549-tackling-exploitation-in-the-labour-market.pdf [last accessed 16 February 2017].

  102. 102.

    ANNE Davies, The Immigration Act 2016. Industrial Law Journal, Volume 45, Issue 3, 1 September 2016, pp. 431–442, p. 440.

  103. 103.

    ANNE Davies, The Immigration Act 2016. Industrial Law Journal, Volume 45, Issue 3, 1 September 2016, pp. 431–442, p. 440.

  104. 104.

    FLEX Briefing: Immigration Bill Part One—January 2016, p. 1, available at: http://www.labourexploitation.org/sites/default/files/publications/FLEXImmBillBriefFINAL.pdf [last accessed 16 February 2017]; Craig, G., The UK’s Modern Slavery Legislation: An Early Assessment of Progress, Social Inclusion 2017, Volume 5, Issue 2, Pages 16–27.

  105. 105.

    Section 2, Immigration Act 2016.

  106. 106.

    Section 3, Immigration Act 2016.

  107. 107.

    Section 8, Immigration Act 2016.

  108. 108.

    Department for Business, Innovation and Skills & Home Office, Tackling exploitation in the labour market, Government Response, January 2016, p. 10, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/491260/BIS-16-11-government-response-to-tackling-exploitation-in-the-labour-market.pdf [last accessed 16 February 2017]; ANNE Davies, The Immigration Act 2016. Industrial Law Journal, Volume 45, Issue 3, 1 September 2016, pp. 431–442, pp. 432–433.

  109. 109.

    Section 2(2), Immigration Act 2016.

  110. 110.

    FLEX Briefing: Immigration Bill Part One—January 2016, p. 2, available at: http://www.labourexploitation.org/sites/default/files/publications/FLEXImmBillBriefFINAL.pdf [last accessed 16 February 2017].

  111. 111.

    Home Office, Immigration Act 2016 Factsheet—Labour market enforcement (Sections 1–33) (July 2016), available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/537203/Immigration_Act-_Part_1_-_Labour_Market_Enforcement.pdf [last accessed 15 February 2017].

  112. 112.

    FLEX Briefing: Immigration Bill Part One—January 2016, p. 2, available at: http://www.labourexploitation.org/sites/default/files/publications/FLEXImmBillBriefFINAL.pdf [last accessed 16 February 2017]; Craig, G., The UK’s Modern Slavery Legislation: An Early Assessment of Progress, Social Inclusion 2017, Volume 5, Issue 2, Pages 16–27; ANNE Davies, The Immigration Act 2016. Industrial Law Journal, Volume 45, Issue 3, 1 September 2016, pp. 431–442, p. 434.

  113. 113.

    Section 2(1), Immigration Act 2016.

  114. 114.

    Section 4(3)(a), Immigration Act 2016.

  115. 115.

    Section 3(3), Immigration Act 2016.

  116. 116.

    Home Office, Immigration Act 2016 Factsheet—Labour market enforcement (Sections 1–33) (July 2016), available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/537203/Immigration_Act-_Part_1_-_Labour_Market_Enforcement.pdf [last accessed 15 February 2017].

  117. 117.

    Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner, Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner Annual Report 2015–16, p. 43, available at: http://www.antislaverycommissioner.co.uk/media/1097/annual-report-2016.pdf [last accessed 16 February 2017].

  118. 118.

    Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner, Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner Annual Report 2015–16, p. 43, available at: http://www.antislaverycommissioner.co.uk/media/1097/annual-report-2016.pdf [last accessed 16 February 2017].

  119. 119.

    United Kingdom Labour Market Enforcement Strategy—Introductory Report 1 April 2016–31 March 2017 Director of Labour Market Enforcement David Metcalf Presented to Parliament pursuant to Section 5 (1) of the Immigration Act 2016 July 2017, p. 24.

  120. 120.

    United Kingdom Labour Market Enforcement Strategy—Introductory Report 1 April 2016–31 March 2017 Director of Labour Market Enforcement David Metcalf Presented to Parliament pursuant to Section 5 (1) of the Immigration Act 2016 July 2017, p. 24.

  121. 121.

    Department for Business innovation and Skills & Home Office, Tackling Exploitation in the Labour market—Consultation, October 2015, https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/labour-market-exploitation-improving-enforcement, accessed 3 November 2015, pp. 35–36.

  122. 122.

    Craig, G., The UK’s Modern Slavery Legislation: An Early Assessment of Progress, Social Inclusion 2017, Volume 5, Issue 2, pp. 16–27, p. 20. See also: ANNE Davies, The Immigration Act 2016. Industrial Law Journal, Volume 45, Issue 3, 1 September 2016, pp. 431–442, p. 434.

  123. 123.

    Department for Business innovation and Skills & Home Office, Tackling Exploitation in the Labour market—Consultation, October 2015, https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/labour-market-exploitation-improving-enforcement, accessed 3 November 2015, p. 36.

  124. 124.

    See PAVLOU, Vera ‘Domestic work in EU law : the relevance of EU employment law in challenging domestic workers’ vulnerability’ 2016 European law review, 2016, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 379–398; Clíodhna Murphy, ‘Tackling Vulnerability to Labour Exploitation through Regulation: The Case of Migrant Fishermen in Ireland,’ Industrial Law Journal, Volume 46, Issue 3, 1 September 2017, pp. 417–434.

  125. 125.

    International Labour Office (ILO) (2006) Labour Inspection: Report III (Part 1B). ILC95-III(1B)-2006-01-0329-1-En. Geneva, International Labour Office.

  126. 126.

    FLEX, Guide to Legal Remedies for Victims of Trafficking for Labour Exploitation, 2017.

  127. 127.

    Article 15 of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (ECAT) to ensure trafficking victims’ right to obtain compensation, both from the perpetrators and from the State; Article 17 of Directive 2011/36/EU requires that victims of human trafficking have access to existing compensation schemes available to other victims of violent crimes; Article 16 European Victims Directive also provides for the right of victims to obtain a decision on compensation in the course of criminal proceedings.

  128. 128.

    In 2015 in England and Wales, 289 modern slavery offences were prosecuted and there were 113 convictions for modern slavery offences. Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Modern Slavery, Report of the inter-departmental ministerial group on modern slavery 2016, pp. 17–18, available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/559690/Modern_Slavery_IDMG_Report_2016.pdf, [last accessed 1 September 2017].

  129. 129.

    HM Government, Modern Slavery Strategy, 2014, p. 59, available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/383764/Modern_Slavery_Strategy_FINAL_DEC2015.pdf [last accessed 1 September 2017].

  130. 130.

    Supra note 89.

  131. 131.

    Focus on Labour Exploitation Working Paper, Access to compensation for victims of human trafficking, July 2016, available at: http://www.labourexploitation.org/sites/default/files/publications/DWP-Compensation-F.pdf [last accessed 1 September 2017].

  132. 132.

    Sections 8–10, Modern Slavery Act 2015.

  133. 133.

    Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner Strategic Plan 2015–17, p. 9, available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/468729/IASC_StrategicPlan_2015.pdf [last accessed 1 September 2017].

  134. 134.

    Onu v Akwiwu [2016] UKSC 31, [2016] 1 WLR 2653.

  135. 135.

    Ibid., para. 34.

  136. 136.

    Focus on Labour Exploitation Working Paper, Access to compensation for victims of human trafficking, July 2016, pp. 7–8, available at: http://www.labourexploitation.org/sites/default/files/publications/DWP-Compensation-F.pdf [last accessed 1 September 2017].

  137. 137.

    Ibid.

  138. 138.

    Regulation 2, Deduction from Wages (Limitation) Regulations 2014.

  139. 139.

    National Minimum Wage Low Pay Commission Report Spring 2016 Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills by Command of Her Majesty March 2016, p. 273, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/571631/LPC_spring_report_2016.pdf [last accessed 1 September 2017].

  140. 140.

    Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner Strategic Plan 2015–2017, p. 3.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Virje Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

    Amy Weatherburn

  2. Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Amy Weatherburn

  3. Coventry University, Coventry, UK

    Alexander Toft

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    Marco Borraccetti

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Weatherburn, A., Toft, A. (2018). Managing the Risks of Being a Victim of Severe Labour Exploitation: Before and After the Modern Slavery Act 2015. In: Borraccetti, M. (eds) Labour Migration in Europe Volume II. Palgrave Pivot, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93979-7_5

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