Skip to main content

Occupational Dermatoses

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Atlas of Dermatology, Dermatopathology and Venereology

Abstract

An occupational dermatosis is one in which workplace exposure to physical, chemical, or biologic agent is causal or a major and necessary contributory factor in the development of the disease. These dermatoses can be broadly categorized in the eczematous, non-eczematous, dermatoses secondary to physical factors, infections, and work-related malignancies. This chapter summarizes in a nutshell the salient clinical and pathological manifestation, prognosis, treatment, and differential diagnosis of these dermatoses.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adriano AR, Quiroz CD, Acosta ML, Jeunon T, Bonini F (2015) Milker’s nodule- case report. An Bras Dermatol 90(3):407–410

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2012) Toxicological profile for chromium. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahad T, Agius E (2015) Br J Hosp Med (Lond) 76(11):C170–C172

    Google Scholar 

  • Akers WA, Sulzberger MB (1972) The friction blister. Mil Med 137(1):1–7

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alam K, Maheshwari V, Bhargava S, Jain A, Fatima U, Haq EU (2009) Histological diagnosis of madura foot (mycetoma): a must for definitive treatment. J Glob Infect Dis 1(1):64–67

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Alian S, Ahangarkani F, Arabsheybani S (2015) A case of Orf disease complicated with erythema multiforme and bullous pemphigoid-like eruptions. Case Rep Infect Dis 2015:105484

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Amaravathi T, Parimalam P, Premlatha MR, Hemaltha G, Ganguli AK (2016) Health hazards in women employed in small scale seafood processing units. Indian J Geo-Mar Sci 45:574–852

    Google Scholar 

  • Arlian LG, Morgan MS (2017) A review of Sarcoptes scabiei: past, present and future. Parasit Vectors 10(1):297

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Aubry A, Mougari F, Reibel F, Cambau E (2017) Mycobacterium marinum. Microbiol Spectr 5(2). https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.TNMI7-0038-2016

  • Bachmeyer C, Bensaid P, Bégon E (2009) Laptop computer as a modern cause of erythema ab igne. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 23(6):736–737

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bajaj AK, Saraswat A, Srivastav PK (2010) Chemical leucoderma: Indian scenario, prognosis, and treatment. Indian J Dermatol 55(3):250–254

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bakshi R, Mathur DR (2008) Incidence and changing pattern of mycetoma in western Rajasthan. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 51(1):154–155

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barbaud A, Poreaux C, Penven E, Waton J (2015) Occupational protein contact dermatitis. Eur J Dermatol 25(6):527–534

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barraviera SRCS (2005) Diseases caused by poxvirus – orf and milker's nodules – a review. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 11(2):103–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Battie C, Jitsukawa S, Bernerd F, Del Bino S, Marionnet C, Verschoore M (2014) New insights in photoaging, UVA induced damage and skin types. Exp Dermatol 11(23 Suppl 1):7–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Boada A, Bielsa I, Fernández-Figueras MT, Ferrándiz C (2010) Perniosis: clinical and histopathological analysis. Am J Dermatopathol 3291:19–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Bray FN, Simmons BJ, Wolfson AH, Nouri K (2016) Acute and chronic cutaneous reactions to ionizing radiation therapy. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb) 6(2):185–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Brianti P, De Flammineis E, Mercuri SR (2017) Review of HPV-related diseases and cancers. New Microbiol 40(2):80–85

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Browning WD, McCarthy JP (2012) A case series: herpes simplex virus as an occupational hazard. J Esthet Restor Dent 24(1):61–66

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calnan CD, Rycroft RJG (1981) Rehabilitation in occupational skin disease. Trans Coll Med S Afr 25(Suppl Rehabil):136–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrada BT (2012) New observations on the epidemiology of sporotrichosis and Sporothrix schenckii complex. Rev Latinoamer Patol Clin 59(2):88–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang P, Arana E, Arenas R (2016) Chromoblastomycosis. Our Dermatol Online 7(3):305–308

    Google Scholar 

  • Chopra D, Chopra V, Sharma A, Chopra S, Aggarwal S, Goyal D (2017) Unusual sites of cutaneous tuberculosis: a report of two cases. Case Rep Dermatol Med 2017:7285169

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dias MFRG, Filho FB, Quaresma MV, Nery JA, Azulay DR (2014) Update on cutaneous tuberculosis. An Bras Dermatol 89(6):925–938

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Diepgen TL (2012) Occupational skin diseases. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 10(5):297–313

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diepgen TL, Drexler H (2012) Occupational skin cancer. In: Rustemeyer T, Elsner P, John SM, Maibach HI (eds) Kanerva’s occupational dermatology, 2nd edn. Springer, New York, pp 65–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Doganay M, Demiraslan H (2015) Human anthrax as a re-emerging disease. Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov 10(1):10–29

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doganay M, Metan G, Alp E (2010) A review of cutaneous anthrax and its outcome. J Infect Public Health 3(3):98–105

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donoghue AM, Sinclair MJ (2000) Miliaria rubra of the lower limbs in underground miners. Occup Med (Lond) 50(6):430–433

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Donoghue AM, Frisch N, Olney D (2014) Bauxite mining and alumina refining: process description and occupational health risks. J Occup Environ Med 56(5 Suppl):S12–S17

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dreno B, Amici JM, Basset-Seguin N, Cribier B, Claudel JP, Richard MA (2014) Management of actinic keratosis: a practical report and treatment algorithm from AKTeam™ expert clinicians. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 28(9):1141–1149

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Efared B, Tahiri L, Boubacar MS, Atsam-Ebang G, Hammas N, Hinde EF, Chbani L (2017) Mycetoma in a non-endemic area: a diagnostic challenge. BMC Clin Pathol 17:1

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Estlander T, Jolanki R, Kanerva L (1987) Contact urticaria from rubber gloves: a detailed description of four cases. Acta Der Venereol Suppl (Stockh) 134:98–102

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreli C, Gasparini G, Parodi A, Cozzani E, Rongioletti F, Atzori L (2017) Cutaneous manifestations of scleroderma and scleroderma-like disorders: a comprehensive review. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 53(3):306–336

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gemne G, Pyykkö I, Taylor W, Pelmear PL (1987) The Stockholm Workshop scale for the classification of cold-induced Raynaud’s phenomenon in the hand-arm vibration syndrome (revision of the Taylor-Pelmear scale). Scand J Work Environ Health 13(4):275–278

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh S (2010) Chemical leukoderma: what’s new on etiopathological and clinical aspects? Indian J Dermatol 55(3):255–258

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh S, Mukhopadhyay S (2009) Chemical leucoderma: a clinicoaetiological study of 864 cases in the perspective of a developing country. Br J Dermatol 160(1):40–47

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Golant A, Nord RM, Paksima N, Posner MA (2008) Cold exposure injuries to the extremities. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 16(12):704–715

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graves SR, Stenos J (2017) Tick-borne infectious diseases in Australia. Med J Aust 206(7):320–324

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Habib ME, Al-Samarrae M, Shoeib FE, Latif GA (2014) Emergency management of chemical burns. J Emerg Med Trauma Surg Care 1:001

    Google Scholar 

  • Handford C, Thomas O, Imray CHE (2017) Frostbite. Emerg Med Clin North Am 35(2):281–299

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hashmi F, Nester C, Wright C, Newton V, Lam S (2015) Characterising the biophysical properties of normal and hyperkeratotic foot skin. J Foot Ankle Res 8:35

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Haustein UF (2005) Scleroderma and pseudo-scleroderma: uncommon presentations. Clin Dermatol 23(5):480–490

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Head BM, Rubinstein E, Meyers AF (2016) Alternative pre-approved and novel therapies for the treatment of anthrax. BMC Infect Dis 16(1):551

    Google Scholar 

  • Heil K, Thomas R, Robertson G, Porter A, Milner R, Wood A (2016) Freezing and non-freezing cold weather injuries: a systematic review. Br Med Bull 117(1):79–93

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huynh N, Sarma D, Huerter C (2011) Erythema ab igne: a case report and review of the literature. Cutis 88(6):290–292

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson R (2004) Herpes gladiatorum and other skin diseases. Clin Sports Med J 23(3):473–484

    Google Scholar 

  • Ju Q, Zouboulis CC, Xia L (2009) Environmental pollution and acne: chloracne. Dermatoendocrinol 1(3):125–128

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JH, Kolozsvary AJ, Jenrow KA, Brown SL (2013) Mechanisms of radiation-induced skin injury and implications for future clinical trials. Int J Radiat Biol 89(5):311–318

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkwood ML, Arbique GM, Guild JB, Timaran C, Valentine RJ, Anderson JA (2014) Radiation-induced skin injury after complex endovascular procedures. J Vasc Surg 60(3):742–748

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kohl E, Steinbauer J, Landthaler M, Szeimies RM (2011) Skin ageing. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 25(8):873–884

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krzyściak PM, Pindycka-Piaszczyńska M, Piaszczyński M (2014) Chromoblastomycosis. Postepy Dermatol Alergol 31(5):310–321

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Laxmisha C, Thappa DM, Pandian S, Jayanthi S (2003) Asymptomatic nodules over forearm and hand. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 69(6):425–426

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee KA, Chung HW, Lee SH, Kim HR (2017) The use of hand perfusion scintigraphy to assess Raynaud’s phenomenon associated with hand-arm vibration syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol Suppl 106(4):138–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Leistner R, Buchwald D, Beyer M, Philipp S (2017) Scabies outbreak among healthcare workers in a German acute care hospital. J Infect Prevent 18(4):189–192

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis MA (2004) Herpes simplex virus: an occupational hazard in dentistry. Int Dent J 54(2):103–111

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindford A, Valtonen J, Hult M, Kavola H, Lappalainen K, Lassila R, Aho P, Vuola J (2017) The evolution of the Helsinki frostbite management protocol. Burns 43:1455. pii: S0305-4179(17)30250-4

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Long WB 3rd, Edlich RF, Winters KL, Britt LD (2005) Cold injuries. J Long-Term Eff Med Implants 15(1):67–78

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mahajan VK (2014) Sporotrichosis: an overview and therapeutic options. Dermatol Res Pract 2014:272376

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Marques GF, Masuda PY, Sousa JM, Barreto JA, Wachholz PA (2015) Clinical and demographic profile of chromoblastomycosis in a referral service in the Midwest of São Paulo state (Brazil). An Bras Dermatol 90(1):140–142

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh SE, Opacic M, Freer L, Grissom CK, Auerbach PS, Rodway GW, Cochran A, Giesbrecht GG, McDevitt M, Imray CH, Johnson EL, Dow J, Hackett PH, Wilderness Medical Society (2014) Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2014 update. Wilderness Environ Med 25(4 Suppl):S43–S54

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McQuestion M (2011) Evidence-based skin care management in radiation therapy: clinical update. Semin Oncol Nurs 27(2):e1–e17

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michiels JJ, ten Kate FW, Vuzevski VD, Abels J (1984) Histopathology of erythromelalgia in thrombocythemia. Histopathology 8(4):669–678

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller K, Hunt R, Chu J, Meehan S, Stein J (2011) Erythema ab igne. Dermatol Online J 17(10):28

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Momin SB, Richardson BS, Bryan MG, DelRosso JQ, Mobini N (2009) Mycetoma clinically masquerading as squamous cell carcinoma. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol 2(2):26–31

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Morris M (1912) Prurigo, pruriginous eczema, and lichenification. Br Med J 1(2687):1469–1474

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy JV, Banwell PE, Roberts AH, McGrouther DA (2000) Frostbite: pathogenesis and treatment. J Trauma 48(1):171–178

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson T, Wahlström J, Burström L (2017) Hand-arm vibration and the risk of vascular and neurological diseases-a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 12(7):e0180795

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly KE, Patel U, Chu J, Patel R, Machler BC (2011) Chemical leukoderma. Dermatol Online J 17(10):29

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Obasanjo OO, Wu P, Conlon M, Karanfil LV, Pryor P, Moler G, Anhalt G, Chaisson RE, Perl TM (2001) An outbreak of scabies in a teaching hospital: lessons learned. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22(1):13–18

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Onoue S, Seto Y, Sato H, Nishida H, Hirota M, Ashikaga T, Api AM, Basketter D, Tokura Y (2017) Chemical photoallergy: photobiochemical mechanisms, classification, and risk assessments. J Dermatol Sci 85(1):4–11

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oumeish OY, Parish LC (2002) Marching in the army: common cutaneous disorders of the feet. Clin Dermatol 20(4):445–451

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parker LK, Ponte C, Howell KJ, Ong VH, Denton CP, Schreiber BE (2017) Clinical features and management of erythromelalgia: long term follow-up of 46 cases. Clin Exp Rheumatol 35(1):80–84

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peharda V, Gruber F, Kastelan M, Massari LP, Saftić M, Cabrijan L, Zamolo G (2007) Occupational skin diseases caused by solar radiation. Coll Antropol 31(Suppl 1):87–90

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips J (2017) Rocky mountain spotted fever. Workplace Health Saf 65(1):48

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piacentino JD, Schwartz BS (2002) Occupational risk of Lyme disease: an epidemiological review. Occup Environ Med 59(2):75–84

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Podder I, Chandra S, Gharami RC (2016) Loeffler’s syndrome following cutaneous larva migrans: an uncommon sequel. Indian J Dermatol 61(2):190–192

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pryce DW, Irvine D, English JS, Rycroft RJ (1989a) Soluble oil dermatitis: a follow up study. Contact Dermatitis 21(1):28–35

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pryce DW, White J, English JS, Rycroft RJ (1989b) Soluble oil dermatitis: a review. J Soc Occup Med 39(3):93–98

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rajan J, Matahi AT, Prasad P, Kaviarasan PK (2011) Multifocal tuberculosis verrucosa cutis. Indian J Dermatol 56:332–334

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Relhan V, Mahajan K, Agarwal P, Garg VK (2017) Mycetoma: an update. Indian J Dermatol 55(4):332–340

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricotti C, Bouzari N, Agadi A, Cockerell CJ (2009) Malignant skin neoplasms. Med Clin North Am 93(6):1241–1264

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy AD, Das D, Deka M (2013) Chromoblastomycosis – a clinical mimic of squamous carcinoma. Australas Med J 6(9):458–460

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rycroft RJG (2001) Occupational contact dermatitis. In: Rycroft RJG, Menne T, Frosch PJ, Lepoittevin JP (eds) Textbook of contact dermatitis, 3rd edn. Springer, Berlin, pp 555–580

    Google Scholar 

  • Rye S, Janda M, Stoneham M, Crane P, Sendall M, Youl P, Tenkate T, Baldwin L, Perina H, Finch L, Kimlin M (2014) Changes in outdoor workers’ sun-related attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors: a pre-post workplace intervention. J Occup Environ Med 56(9):e55–e72

    Google Scholar 

  • Scharffetter-Kochanek K (1997) Photoaging of the connective tissue of skin: its prevention and therapy. Adv Pharmacol 38:639–655

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schlessinger DI, Schlessinger J (2019) Chloracne. In: StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island; Resource document. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459189/

  • Sette CS, Wachholz PA, Masuda PY, Figueira RBF, Mattar FR, Ura DG (2015) Mycobacterium marinum infection: a case report. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 21:7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40409-015-0008-9

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sridhar SC, Deo SC (2017) Marine and other aquatic dermatoses. Indian J Dermatol 55(1):66–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart GE 2nd (2002) Histopathology of chronic urticaria. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 23(2):195–200

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sugathan P, Bhagyanathan M (2016) Cutaneous larva migrans: presentation at an unusual site. Indian J Dermatol 61(5):574–575

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Takci Z, Vahaboglu G, Eksioglu H (2012) Epidemiological patterns of perniosis, and its association with systemic disorder. Clin Exp Dermatol 37:844–849

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tekely E, Szostakiewicz B, Wawrzycki B, Kądziela-Wypyska G, Juszkiewicz-Borowiec M, Pietrzak A, Chodorowska G (2013) Cutaneous larva migrans syndrome: a case report. Postepy Dermatol Alergol 30(2):119–121

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thappa DM (2004) The isomorphic phenomenon of Koebner. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 70(3):187–189

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner S, Lines S, Chen Y, Hussey L, Agius R (2005) Work-related infectious disease reported to the Occupational Disease Intelligence Network and The Health and Occupation Reporting network in the UK (2000–2003). Occup Med (Lond) 55(4):275–281

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Usmani N, Wilkinson SM (2007) Allergic skin disease: investigation of both immediate- and delayed type hypersensitivity is essential. Clin Exp Allergy 37(10):1541–1546

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Genderen PJ, Michiels JJ (1997) Erythromelalgia: a pathognomonic microvascular thrombotic complication in essential thrombocythemia and polycythemia vera. Semin Thromb Hemost 23(4):357–363

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasudevan B, Chatterjee M (2013) Lyme borreliosis and skin. Indian J Dermatol 58(3):167–174

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ventimiglia E, Horenblas S, Muneer A, Salonia A (2016) Human papillomavirus infection and vaccination in males. Eur Urol Focus 2(4):355–355

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wakelin SH, White IR (1999) Natural rubber latex allergy. Clin Exp Dermatol 24(4):245–248

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward AM, Udnoon S, Watkins J, Walker AE, Darke CS (1976) Immunological mechanisms in the pathogenesis of vinyl chloride disease. Br Med J 1(6015):936–938

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wattanakrai P, Taylor JS (2012) Occupational and environmental acne. In: Rustemeyer T, Elsner P, John SM, Maibach HI (eds) Kanerva’s occupational dermatology, 2nd edn. Springer, New York, pp 333–346

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss G, Shemer A, Trau H (2002) The Koebner phenomenon: review of the literature. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 16(3):241–248

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wesdock JC, Arnold IM (2014) Occupational and environmental health in the aluminium industry: key points for health practitioners. J Occup Environ Med 56(5 Suppl):S5–S11

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson DS, Budden MG, Hambly EM (1980) A 10 year review of an industrial dermatitis clinic. Contact Dermatitis 6(1):11–17

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu IB, Schwartz RA (2007) Herpetic whitlow. Cutis 79(3):193–196

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yaar M, Gilchrest BA (2007) Photoageing: mechanism, prevention and therapy. Br J Dermatol 157(5):874–887

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ye C, Wang X, Zhang Y, Ni L, Jiang R, Liu L, Han C (2016) Ten-year epidemiology of chemical burns in western Zhejiang Province, China. Burns 42(3):668–674

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Santoshdev P. Rathod , Niharika Ranjan Lal , Shekhar Neema or Piyush Kumar .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Rathod, S.P., Ranjan Lal, N., Neema, S., Kumar, P. (2020). Occupational Dermatoses. In: Smoller, B., Bagherani, N. (eds) Atlas of Dermatology, Dermatopathology and Venereology . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45134-3_63-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45134-3_63-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-45134-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-45134-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics