Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the current state of African American children diagnosed with a specific learning disability (SLD). Our goal is to provide an historical overview of the learning disability diagnosis in addition to discussing the current methods for clinical and school-based indication of this disorder. Given that two different criteria are used for the identification of learning disabilities, we provide an overview of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). In addition, we discuss the controversy surrounding the overrepresentation of African Americans in special education and future research regarding African American children diagnosed with SLDs.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Washington, DC: Author.
Artiles, A. J., Kozleski, E. B., Trent, S. C., Osher, D., & Ortiz, A. (2010). Justifying and explaining disproportionality, 1968–2008: A critique of underlying views of culture. Exceptional Children, 76(3), 279–299.
Baglieri, S., & Moses, A. (2010). “My name is jay”: On teachers’ roles in the overrepresentation of minorities in special education and what teacher education can do. Disability Studies Quarterly, 30(2).
Bernal, G., & Scharrón-del-Río, M. R. (2001). Are empirically supported treatments valid for ethnic minorities? Toward an alternative approach for treatment research. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7(4), 328–342.
Blanchett, W. J. (2010). Telling it like it is: The role of race, class, & culture in the perpetuation of learning disability as a privileged category for the white middle class. Disability Studies Quarterly, 30(2).
Ciolfi, A. A., & Ryan, J. E. (2011). Race and response-to-intervention in special education. Howard Law Journal, 54, 303–342. Retrieved from http://ssm.com/abstract=1756841.
Council of National Psychological Associations for the Advancement of Ethnic Minority Interests. (2003). Psychological treatment of ethnic minority populations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Dombrowski, S. C., Kamphaus, R. W., & Reynolds, C. R. (2004). After the demise of the discrepancy: Proposed learning disabilities diagnostic criteria. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 364–372.
Donovan, M. S., & Cross, C. T. (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Dunn, L. M. (1968). Special education for the mildly retarded: Is much of it justifiable? Exceptional Children, 23, 5–21.
Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975, 20 USC sec. 1400–1485 et seq. (statue); 34 CFR 300 (regulations published 1977).
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., & Speece, D. L. (2002). Treatment validity as a unifying construct for identifying learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25(1), 33–45.
Gibson, L., Cartledge, G., Keyes, S. E., & Yawn, C. D. (2014). The effects of a supplementary computerized fluency intervention on the generalization of the oral reading fluency and comprehension of first grade students. Education and Treatment of Children, 37, 25–51.
Graves, S., & Mitchell, A. (2011). Is the moratorium over? African American psychology professionals’ views on intelligence testing in response to changes to federal policy. Journal of Black Psychology, 37, 407–425.
Gresham, F. M. (2002). Responsiveness to intervention: An alternative approach to the identification of learning disabilities. In R. Bradley, L. Donaldson, & D. Hallahan (Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice (pp. 467–519). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Haager, D. (2007). Promises and cautions regarding using response to intervention with English learners. Learning Disability Quarterly, 30(3), 213–218.
Harris-Murri, N., King, K., & Rostenberg, D. (2006). Reducing disproportionate minority representation in special education programs for students with emotional disturbances: Toward a culturally responsive response to intervention model. Education and Treatment of Children, 29(4), 779.
Harr-Robins, J. J., Shambaugh, L. S., & Parrish, T. (2009). The status of state-level response to intervention policies and procedures in the west region states and five other states. Issues & answers. REL 2009-No. 077. Regional Educational Laboratory West.
Harry, B., & Klinger, J. (2006). Why are so many minority students in special education? New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Heller, K. A., Holtzman, W., & Messick, S. (Eds.). (1982). Placing children in special education: A strategy for equity (pp. 322–381). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Hughes, C., & Dexter, D. (2015). Field studies of RTI programs, Revised. RTI Action Network Web, National Center for Learning Disabilities. Retrieved March 10, 2015 from http://www.rtinetwork.org/learn/research.
Institute of Education Sciences. (2009). Post-high school outcomes of youth with disabilities up to 4 years after high school. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncser/pdf/20093017.pdf
Joseph, L. M. (2002). Facilitating word recognition and spelling using word boxes and word sort phonic procedures. School Psychology Review, 31, 122–129.
Kortering, L. J., Braziel, P. M., & McClannon, L. J. (2010). Career ambitions: A comparison of youth with and without SLD. Remedial & Special Education, 31, 230–240.
Lindo, E. J. (2006). The African American presence in reading intervention experiments. Remedial and Special Education, 27(3), 148–153.
Losen, D. J., & Orfield, G. (2002). Racial inequity in special education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Marston, D., Muyskens, P., Lau, M., & Canter, A. (2003). Problem-solving model for decision-making with high-incidence disabilities: The Minneapolis experience. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 18, 187–200.
McKinney, E., Bartholomew, C., & Gray, L. (2010). RTI and SWPBIS: Confronting the problem of disproportionality. NASP Communiqué, 38(6), 1–5.
Miranda, J., Nakamura, R., & Bernal, G. (2003). Including ethnic minorities in mental health intervention research: A practical approach to a long-standing problem. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 27(4), 467–486.
Newell, M., & Kratochwill, T. (2006). The integration of response to intervention and critical race theory-disability studies: A robust approach to reducing racial discrimination in evaluation decisions. In S. Jimerson, M. Burns, & A. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 65–79). New York, NY: Springer.
Newell, M. L., Nastasi, B. K., Hatzichristou, C., Jones, J. M., Schanding, G. T., Jr., & Yetter, G. (2010). Evidence on multicultural training in school psychology: Recommendations for future directions. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(4), 249.
Pitre, E. (2009). Overrepresentation of African American males in special education: An examination of the Referral process in the K-12 Public School Setting. In A. Pitre, E. Pitre, R.R. Ray, & T. Hilton-Pitre (Eds.), Educating African-American students: Foundations, curriculum, and experiences (pp. 79–94). Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield Education.
Proctor, S. L., Graves, S., & Esch, R. (2012). Assessing African American students for specific learning disabilities: The promises and perils of response to intervention. Journal of Negro Education, 81, 268–282.
Reschly, D. J. (2000). The present and future status of school psychology in the United States. School Psychology Review, 29, 507–522.
Sawyer, R., Holland, D., & Detgen, A. (2008). State policies and procedures and selected local implementation practices in response to intervention in the six Southeast Region states (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2008; No. 063). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southeast. Retrieved from www.ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs
Sullivan, A. L., & Artiles, A. J. (2011). Theorizing racial inequity in special education: Applying structural inequity theory to disproportionality. Urban Education, 0042085911416014
Sullivan, A. L., A’Vant, E., Baker, J., Chandler, D., Graves, S., McKinney, E., & Sayles, T. (2009). Confronting inequity in special education, part I: Understanding the problem of disproportionality. NASP Communiqué, 38(1), 14–15.
Swanson, H. L, Hoskyn, M., & Lee, C. (1999). Interventions for students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of treatment outcomes. New York, NY: Guildford.
Taylor, L. K., Alber, S. R., & Walker, D. W. (2002). The comparative effects of a modified self-questioning strategy and story mapping on the reading comprehension of elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 11, 69–87.
U.S. Department of Education. (2014). Part B State Performance Plans (SPP) Letters and Annual Performance Report (APR) Letters. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/fund/data/report/idea/partbspap/allyears.html.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special Education Programs (2011), 30 th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2008. Washington, DC.
Waitoller, F., Artiles, A., & Cheney, D. (2010). The miner’s canary: A review of overrepresentation research and explanations. Journal of Special Education, 44, 29–49.
Wanzek, J., & Vaughn, S. (2007). Research-based implications from extensive early reading interventions. School Psychology Review, 36(4), 541.
White, R. B., Polly, D., & Audette, R. H. (2012). A case analysis of an elementary school’s implementation of response to intervention. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 26(1), 73–90.
Zirkel, P., & Krohn, N. (2008). RTI after IDEA: A survey of state laws. Teaching Exceptional Children, 40, 71–73.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Graves, S.L., Nichols, K.D. (2016). Learning Disabilities. In: Breland-Noble, A., Al-Mateen, C., Singh, N. (eds) Handbook of Mental Health in African American Youth. Springer Series on Child and Family Studies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25501-9_16
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25501-9_16
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-25499-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-25501-9
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)