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Heartbeat and Respiration: Toward a Functional Chronobiology

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Abstract

The search for the underlying lawfulness between respiration and heart rate variability has a long history and continues to be at the center of scientific inquiry. Because respiration is partially under conscious control, quantification of its effect on HR presents significant methodological limitations. The discovery of non-equilibrium processes in medicine and biology paved the way toward an expanded view of homeostasis based on nonlinear dynamics. Pulse and respiration are examples of a periodic, nonlinear behavior, exhibiting phase and frequency synchronization at whole number ratios, best demonstrated during periods of rest and the regenerative phase of sleep. The combined concepts of open systems and self-organization offer the possibility of understanding the organism as a spatial structure with life processes, i.e., nourishment, breathing, circulation, growth, regeneration, reproduction, and sense perception, proceeding in time. Life processes are closely linked to external (macrocosmic) rhythms in plants but become entrained and/or internalized in animals and humans. Their synchronization enables the emergence of a higher-level organization that is far-from-thermodynamic equilibrium. The spectrum of human biological rhythms spans several orders of magnitude, from high frequencies in the nervous system to intermediate, as extant in pulse and respiration, and to low-range frequencies in the metabolic system. The cardiovascular system entrains macrocosmic (external) and microcosmic (internal) rhythms by means of transcriptional and non-transcriptional metabolic clocks which persist even in explanted heart preparations and in stored blood. A functional division of the time organism into informational, rhythmical, and metabolic parts provides the bridge between the somatic and psychological functions on the one hand, and between the outer (macrocosmic) and inner (microcosmic) environments on the other. While metabolic processes that provide energy and sustain the function of the entire organism exhibit inherent anabolic/catabolic rhythms, reflected in fluctuations of core body temperature, the brain-bound consciousness is a catabolic process linked to the day/night cycle.

Organisms are changing rhythms and thereby express their non-material nature; non-living materials are condensed, crystallized, or frozen rhythms…which are likewise expressions of their non-material nature.

Ulrich W. Weger (2014)

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Notes

  1. 1.

    HRV analysis in time domain provides a measure of total variability in a given period by statistical measures (mean or standard deviation), while analysis in frequency domain, by means of spectral analysis (fast Fourier transform in different frequency bands), can identify specific components of this variability, i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Linear approaches describe situations where causes are proportional to effects. Nonlinear dynamics approach to HRV analysis uses autoregressive model (chaos theory) where the output variable depends on the previous values and on the unpredictable (stochastic) term. Analytical methods based on chaos theory identify the underlying order in a seemingly random sequence of recurring events. While truly chaotic behavior is random, deterministic chaotic behavior recurs, revealing a hidden order in chaos.

  2. 2.

    Note that phase synchronization between two oscillating systems may be observed without modulation, such as synchronous beating of pendulum clocks first observed by Christiaan Huygens in 1665.

  3. 3.

    The beneficial effect of recitation has been recognized since the antiquity. Known are speech chorus performances of Homer’s classic works, e.g., Iliad, written in hexameter, to large crowds of listeners at Epidaurus.

  4. 4.

    In 1951 B. Belousov attempted to simulate a test-tube model of Krebs cycle by mixing malonic acid and bromate ions in a weak solution of sulfuric acid in the presence of a cerium catalyst. Cyclical reduction/oxidation of cerium or manganese ions causes the solution to oscillate from yellow to colorless for about 1 hour. This and similar chemical oscillators are known as BZ reaction, after Belousov and Zhabotynsky who were the first to describe it [50].

  5. 5.

    The very nature of units by which time is measured also speaks against the linear concept of time. Historically, the passage of time was gauged against the steady rhythms of heavenly bodies, notably rotation of the earth and monthly cycle of the moon (day, month, and year). It was the nature of these predictable celestial events that inspired invention of sundials and clocks.

  6. 6.

    In classical physics the three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time are given an independent (absolute) status and exist outside things and events. For things, distances are measured in space and events are measured in time. This has been reversed in Einstein’s theory of relativity where distances belong to things themselves and processes occur in a time–space relative to another event. The time thus becomes part of the “four-dimensional time-space continuum,” where an abstract dimension of time is added to the three abstract dimensions of space. According to such view, “every thought of an essential reality that manifests its nature in existence is precluded. Everything is only in relation to something else” [58].

  7. 7.

    Two types of memory are distinguished in memory research literature: common remembering is referred to as explicit or declarative memory by which experiences are linked to linear time, i.e., from past to present. Explicit memory brings past into the present. Implicit or body memory (also known as learned or habitual memory), by contrast, is bound to life or time “body” (organization) and is subject to cyclical time. Its forming is favored by rhythmical practice and repetition, i.e. walking, playing of an instrument or learning “by heart.” Body memory consists mainly in forgetting of what one learned explicitly. It is most active in early childhood and displays lifelong, but waning plasticity [61].

  8. 8.

    Form here refers to non-material, non-temporal lawfulness that transcends time and space. Mathematical and geometrical concepts are examples of universal forms. A form of a circle is an idea/concept that can assume a material form.

  9. 9.

    Steiner pointed to a significant periodic connection between macrocosmic and microcosmic (human) rhythms. The number of years the sun requires to cross the same point on the ecliptic at the time of spring equinox, as it travels through the constellations of the zodiac, is 25,920 years, the period known as the Great Cosmic or Platonic Year. This number corresponds the average number of breaths humans draw in 24 h (18 breaths per minute × 60 min × 24 h = 25,920). Dividing 72 (the average heart rate) by 18 gives 4, the number ratio between the heart beat and respiration [67].

  10. 10.

    Also, with reference to transcriptional clocks, it can be argued that the “clock” properties cannot lie in the transcription process as such nor in the molecular transcription regulators, as these regulators are regulated/expressed, etc., too; so, already this regulation must have the temporal features usually attributed to the transcription process. The “cause” of temporality would, therefore, have to be ascribed to a never-ending chain of regulators.

  11. 11.

    Heme iron in deoxyhemoglobin (deoxy-Hb) is in the ferrous state FE(II) and binding of oxygen to heme iron results in equilibrium between Fe(II)–O2 bond and Fe(III)–superoxide anion (O2−) bond. With the release of oxygen, a small amount of superoxide (H2O2) is freed, causing autoxidation of hemoglobin to methemoglobin (met-Hb) which is unable to carry oxygen. Normally, about 3% of Hb exists as met-Hb. RBCs are protected from excessive autoxidation by cytoplasmic redox system NADH/NADPH, maintained by ATP generation by glycolysis [76].

  12. 12.

    The concept of the brain as a mirroring organ goes back to R. Steiner who proposed that rather than generating thoughts, neurons mirror patterns of lawful relations, i.e., sense impressions or memory pictures, into individual’s conscious perception [63].

  13. 13.

    This depends on the level on which rhythmicity is expressed: at the molecular level, the turnover rhythms of functional enzymes, for example, might operate at much faster rates and rhythms.

  14. 14.

    Feed-forward or open-loop controller generates “commands” without continuous error signal or negative feedback.

  15. 15.

    Non-apical skin in humans corresponds to hair-covered skin in mammals and nonhuman primates.

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  1. Professor of Anesthesiology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, USA

    Branko Furst MD, FFARCSI

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Furst, B. (2020). Heartbeat and Respiration: Toward a Functional Chronobiology. In: The Heart and Circulation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25062-1_23

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