Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Global Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Cancers

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Textbook of Gastrointestinal Oncology

Abstract

The global cancer burden tends to increase. Tumors originating from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract such as the stomach and colorectum and liver are among the five most common cancers in both men and women worldwide. In women, colorectal cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer followed by stomach cancer. However, colorectal cancer is the third most common malignancy in men followed by stomach and liver cancers. Gastrointestinal tumors, such as stomach and liver, are the most common causes of cancer death in men. In women, however, colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer-related death.

The incidence of GI cancers shows significant geographical variation, with colorectal cancer incidence higher in Western Europe and North America, while gastric and liver cancer incidences are higher in Asia and Africa. Major risk factors for GI cancers include smoking, alcohol, infections, genetic factors, diet, and obesity. Contemporary changes in lifestyle and environmental factors as well as advances in medicine also affect epidemiology of GI cancers. Improved food preservation methods have been associated with reduced gastric cancer incidence, while the obesity epidemic in industrialized countries is associated with increased colon cancer incidence and high alcohol consumption with increased liver cancer rates. This chapter reviews our current knowledge on the changing epidemiology and risk factors of GI malignancies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Cancer Research UK. Worldwide cancer statistics. https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/cancer-statistics/worldwide-cancer. Accessed 15 Aug 2018.

  2. Pennathur A, Gibson MK, Jobe BA, Luketich JD. Oesophageal carcinoma. Lancet. 2013;381:400–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer. Cancer fact sheets. http://globocan.iarc.fr/Pages/fact_sheets_cancer.aspx. Accessed 17 Sept 2018.

  4. Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, Garshell J, Miller D, Altekruse SF, et al., editors. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2011, National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, MD, https://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2011/, based on November 2013 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER web site, April 2014.

  5. Islami F, Kamangar F, Aghcheli K, Fahimi S, Semnani S, Taghavi N, et al. Epidemiologic features of upper gastrointestinal tract cancers in Northeastern Iran. Br J Cancer. 2004;90:1402–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Tran GD, Sun XD, Abnet CC, Fan JH, Dawsey SM, Dong ZW, et al. Prospective study of risk factors for esophageal and gastric cancers in the Linxian general population trial cohort in China. Int J Cancer. 2005;113:456–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Islami F, Kamangar F. Helicobacter pylori and esophageal cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2008;1:329–38.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F, Forman D, Mathers C, Parkin DM. Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008. Int J Cancer. 2010;127:2893–1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Suzuki R, Yamamoto E, Nojima M, Maruyama R, Yamano HO, Yoshikawa K, et al. Aberrant methylation of microRNA- 34b/c is a predictive marker of metachronous gastric cancer risk. J Gastroenterol. 2014;49:1135–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Bria E, De Manzoni G, Beghelli S, Tomezzoli A, Barbi S, Di Gregorio C, et al. A clinical-biological risk stratification model for resected gastric cancer: prognostic impact of Her2, Fhit, and APC expression status. Ann Oncol. 2013;24:693–701.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Siegel R, Ma J, Zou Z, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin. 2014;64:9–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Bertuccio P, Chatenoud L, Levi F, Praud D, Ferlay J, Negri E, et al. Recent patterns in gastric cancer: a global overview. Int J Cancer. 2009;125:666–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Bosetti C, Bertuccio P, Malvezzi M, Levi F, Chatenoud L, Negri E, et al. Cancer mortality in Europe, 2005–2009, and an overview of trends since 1980. Ann Oncol. 2013;24:2657–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Peleteiro B, Severo M, La Vecchia C, Lunet N. Model-based patterns in stomach cancer mortality worldwide. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2013;23(6):524–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Jemal A, Center MM, DeSantis C, Ward EM. Global patterns of cancer incidence and mortality rates and trends. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2010;19:1893–907.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Parkin DM. The global health burden of infection-associated cancers in the year 2002. Int J Cancer. 2006;118:3030–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. McCracken M, Olsen M, Chen MS Jr, Jemal A, Thun M, Cokkinides V, et al. Cancer incidence, mortality, and associated risk factors among Asian Americans of Chinese, Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese ethnicities. CA Cancer J Clin. 2007;57:190–205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Hamilton SR, Aaltonen LA. World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics of tumours of the digestive system. Chapter 4. Lyon: IARC Press; 2000. p. 69–92.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Curado MP, Edwards B, Shin HR, Storm H, Ferlay J, Heanue M, Boyle P. Cancer incidence in five continents Vol. IX. Lyon: IARC, IARC Scientific Publication, No. 160, 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, Hao Y, Xu J, Thun MJ. Cancer statistics, 2009. CA Cancer J Clin. 2009;59:225–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Bilimoria KY, Bentrem DJ, Wayne JD, Ko CY, Bennett CL, Talamonti MS. Small bowel cancer in the United States: changes in epidemiology, treatment, and survival over the last 20 years. Ann Surg. 2009;249:63–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Schottenfeld D, Beebe-Dimmer JL, Vigneau FD. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of neoplasia in the small intestine. Ann Epidemiol. 2009;19:58–69.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. http://globocan.iarc.fr/Pages/fact_sheets_population.aspx. Accessed 18 Mar 2016.

  24. Siegel R, DeSantis C, Virgo K, Stein K, Mariotto A, Smith T, et al. Cancer treatment and survivorship statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. 2012;62:220–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Austin H, Jane Henley S, King J, Richardson LC, Eheman C. Changes in colorectal cancer incidence rates in young and older adults in the United States: what does it tell us about screening. Cancer Causes Control. 2014;25:191–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Siegel RL, Jemal A, Ward EM. Increase in incidence of colorectal cancer among young men and women in the United States. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2009;18:1695–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. O’Connell JB, Maggard MA, Liu JH, Etzioni DA, Livingston EH, Ko CY. Rates of colon and rectal cancers are increasing in young adults. Am Surg. 2003;69:866–72.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2013. CA Cancer J Clin. 2013;63:11–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Brenner H, Bouvier AM, Foschi R, Hackl M, Larsen IK, Lemmens V, et al.; EUROCARE Working Group. Progress in colorectal cancer survival in Europe from the late 1980s to the early 21st century: the EUROCARE study. Int J Cancer. 2012;131:1649–58.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Sankaranarayanan R, Swaminathan R, Brenner H, Chen K, Chia KS, Chen JG, et al. Cancer survival in Africa, Asia, and Central America: a population-based study. Lancet Oncol. 2010;11:165–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Ervik M, Dikshit R, Eser S, Mathers C, et al. GLOBOCAN 2012 v1.0, cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: IARC Cancer Base no. 11. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2013.. http://globocan.iarc.fr. Accessed 17 Sept 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  32. National Cancer Institute. Surveillance, epidemiology, and end results program. Cancer Stat Facts: Liver and Intrahepatic Bile Duct Cancer. http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/livibd.html. Accessed 17 Sept 2018.

  33. Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P. Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin. 2005;55:74–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Boffetta P, Boccia S, La Vecchia C. Cancer of the liver and biliary tract. In: Boffetta P, Boccia S, La Vecchia C, editors. A quick guide to cancer epidemiology. Cham: Springer; 2014.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  35. London WT, McGlynn KA. Liver cancer. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni Jr J, editors. Cancer epidemiology and prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006. p. 763–86.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  36. El-Serag HB. Hepatocellular Carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1118–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Mittal S, El-Serag HB. Epidemiology of hepatocellular carcinoma: consider the population. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2013;47(suppl):S2–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Center MM, Jemal A. International trends in liver cancer incidence rates. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2011;20:2362–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. La Vecchia C, Lucchini F, Franceschi S, Negri E, Levi F. Trends in mortality from primary liver cancer in Europe. Eur J Cancer. 2000;36:909–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Bosetti C, Levi F, Boffetta P, Lucchini F, Negri E, La Vecchia C. Trends in mortality from hepatocellular carcinoma in Europe, 1980-2004. Hepatology. 2008;48:137–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Rizvi S, Gores GJ. Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management of cholangiocarcinoma. Gastroenterology. 2013;145:1215–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Mosconi S, Beretta GD, Labianca R, Zampino MG, Gatta G, Heinemann V. Cholangiocarcinoma. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2009;69:259–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Shaib YH, Davila JA, Henderson L, McGlynn KA, El-Serag HB. Endoscopic and surgical therapy for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in the United States: a population-based study. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2007;41:911–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Ustundag Y, Bayraktar Y. Cholangiocarcinoma: a compact review of the literature. World J Gastroenterol. 2008;14:6458–66.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Khan SA, Davidson BR, Goldin RD, Heaton N, Karani J, Pereira SP, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of cholangiocarcinoma: an update. Gut. 2012;61:1657–69.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Lai CH, Lau WY. Gallbladder cancer: a comprehensive review. Surgeon. 2008;6:101–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Zhu AX, Hong TS, Hezel AF, Kooby DA. Current management of gallbladder carcinoma. Oncologist. 2010;15:168–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Lazcano-Ponce EC, Miquel JF, Muñoz N, Herrero R, Ferrecio C, Wistuba II, et al. Epidemiology and molecular pathology of gallbladder cancer. CA Cancer J Clin. 2001;2001(51):349–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Pandey M. Risk factors for gallbladder cancer: a reappraisal. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2003;12:15–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Duffy A, Capanu M, Abou-Alfa GK, Huitzil D, Jarnagin W, Fong Y, et al. Gallbladder cancer (GBC): 10-year experience at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Centre (MSKCC). J Surg Oncol. 2008;98:485–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Levy AD, Murakata LA, Rohrmann CA Jr. Gallbladder carcinoma: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics. 2001;21:295–314.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2015. CA Cancer J Clin. 2015;65:5–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Lau MK, Davila JA, Shaib YH. Incidence and survival of pancreatic head and body and tail cancers: a population-based study in the United States. Pancreas. 2010;39:458–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Ryan DP, Hong TS, Bardeesy N. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:1039–49.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Quaresma M, Coleman MP, Rachet B. 40-year trends in an index of survival for all cancers combined and survival adjusted for age and sex for each cancer in England and Wales, 1971-2011: a population-based study. Lancet. 2015;385:1206–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Zell JA, Rhee JM, Ziogas A, Lipkin SM, Anton-Culver H. Race, socioeconomic status, treatment, and survival time among pancreatic cancer cases in California. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2007;16:546–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Cook MB, Chow WH, Devesa SS. Oesophageal cancer incidence in the United States by race, sex, and histologic type, 1977-2005. Br J Cancer. 2009;101:855–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Ladeiras-Lopes R, Pereira AK, Nogueira A, Pinheiro-Torres T, Pinto I, Santos-Pereira R, et al. Smoking and gastric cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Cancer Causes Control. 2008;19:689–701.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Steevens J, Schouten LJ, Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA. Alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking and risk of subtypes of oesophageal and gastric cancer: a prospective cohort study. Gut. 2010;59:39–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Fuchs CS, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci EL, Hunter DJ, Rimm EB, et al. A prospective study of cigarette smoking and the risk of pancreatic cancer. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:2255–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Johnson CM, Wei C, Ensor JE, Smolenski DJ, Amos CI, Levin B, et al. Meta-analyses of colorectal cancer risk factors. Cancer Causes Control. 2013;24:1207–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Frisch M. On the etiology of anal squamous carcinoma. Dan Med Bull. 2002;49:194–209.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Bosetti C, Lucenteforte E, Silverman DT, Petersen G, Bracci PM, Ji BT, et al. Cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer: an analysis from the international pancreatic cancer case-control consortium (Panc4). Ann Oncol. 2012;23:1880–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Cook MB, Kamangar F, Whiteman DC, Freedman ND, Gammon MD, Bernstein L, et al. Cigarette smoking and adenocarcinomas of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction: a pooled analysis from the international BEACON consortium. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2010;102:1344–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. González CA, Pera G, Agudo A, Palli D, Krogh V, Vineis P, et al. Smoking and the risk of gastric cancer in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC). Int J Cancer. 2003;107:629–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking. In: IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, vol. 83. Lyon: IARC; 2004. p. 53.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Schwartz AG, Prysak GM, Bock CH, Cote ML. The molecular epidemiology of lung cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2007;28:507–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Schütze M, Boeing H, Pischon T, Rehm J, Kehoe T, Gmel G, et al. Alcohol attributable burden of incidence of cancer in eight European countries based on results from prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2011;342:d1584.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Bagnardi V, Rota M, Botteri E, Tramacere I, Islami F, Fedirko V, et al. Alcohol consumption and site-specific cancer risk: a comprehensive dose-response meta-analysis. Br J Cancer. 2015;112:580–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Allen NE, Beral V, Casabonne D, Kan SW, Reeves GK, Brown A, et al.; Million Women Study Collaborators. Moderate alcohol intake and cancer incidence in women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009;101:296–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Tanaka K, Hirohata T, Takeshita S, Hirohata I, Koga S, Sugimachi K, et al. Hepatitis B virus, cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in Fukuoka, Japan. Int J Cancer. 1992;51:509–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Alcohol, low-methionine--low-folate diets, and risk of colon cancer in men. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87:265–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Zhu JZ, Wang YM, Zhou QY, Zhu KF, Yu CH, Li YM. Systematic review with meta-analysis: alcohol consumption and the risk of colorectal adenoma. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2014;40:325–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Alcohol consumption and ethyl carbamate. In: IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, vol. 96. Lyon: IARC; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Homann N, Jousimies-Somer H, Jokelainen K, Heine R, Salaspuro M. High acetaldehyde levels in saliva after ethanol consumption: methodological aspects and pathogenetic implications. Carcinogenesis. 1997;18:1739–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Weng MW, Lee HW, Park SH, Hu Y, Wang HT, Chen LC, et al. Aldehydes are the predominant forces inducing DNA damage and inhibiting DNA repair in tobacco smoke carcinogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018;115:E6152–e61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Salaspuro M. Acetaldehyde as a common denominator and cumulative carcinogen in digestive tract cancers. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2009;44:912–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Boffetta P, Hashibe M. Alcohol and cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7:149–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Jagelman DG, DeCosse JJ, Bussey HJ. Upper gastrointestinal cancer in familial adenomatous polyposis. Lancet. 1988;1:1149–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Jasperson KW, Tuohy TM, Neklason DW, Burt RW. Hereditary and familial colon cancer. Gastroenterology. 2010;138:2044–58.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Stoffel EM, Mangu PB, Gruber SB, Hamilton SR, Kalady MF, Lau MW, et al.; American Society of Clinical Oncology; European Society of Clinical Oncology. Hereditary colorectal cancer syndromes: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline endorsement of the familial risk-colorectal cancer: European Society for Medical Oncology clinical practice guidelines. J Clin Oncol. 2015;33:209–17.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Grover S, Kastrinos F, Steyerberg EW, Cook EF, Dewanwala A, Burbidge LA, et al. Prevalence and phenotypes of APC and MUTYH mutations in patients with multiple colorectal adenomas. JAMA. 2012;308:485–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Win AK, Young JP, Lindor NM, Tucker KM, Ahnen DJ, Young GP, et al. Colorectal and other cancer risks for carriers and noncarriers from families with a DNA mismatch repair gene mutation: a prospective cohort study. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30:958–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Bonadona V, Bonaïti B, Olschwang S, Grandjouan S, Huiart L, Longy M, et al.; French Cancer Genetics Network. Cancer risks associated with germline mutations in MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 genes in Lynch syndrome. JAMA. 2011;305:2304–10.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Stoffel EM, Mangu PB, Gruber SB, Hamilton SR, Kalady MF, Lau MW, et al. Hereditary colorectal cancer syndromes: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline endorsement of the familial risk-colorectal cancer: European Society for Medical Oncology clinical practice guidelines. J Clin Oncol. 2015;33:209–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Mavaddat N, Peock S, Frost D, Ellis S, Platte R, Fineberg E, et al.; EMBRACE. Cancer risks for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers: results from prospective analysis of EMBRACE. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105:812–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium. Cancer risks in BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;91:1310–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Thompson D, Easton DF. Breast cancer linkage C, cancer incidence in BRCA1 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002;94:1358–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Beasley RP. Hepatitis B virus. The major etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer. 1988;61:1942–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Farazi PA, DePinho RA. Hepatocellular carcinoma pathogenesis: from genes to environment. Nat Rev Cancer. 2006;6:674–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Huang YT, Jen CL, Yang HI, Lee MH, Su J, Lu SN, et al. Lifetime risk and sex difference of hepatocellular carcinoma among patients with chronic hepatitis B and C. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29:3643–50.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Chen CJ, Yang HI, Su J, Jen CL, You SL, Lu SN, et al.; REVEAL-HBV Study Group. Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma across a biological gradient of serum hepatitis B virus DNA level. JAMA. 2006;295:65–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Yang HI, Lu SN, Liaw YF, You SL, Sun CA, Wang LY, et al.; Taiwan Community-Based Cancer Screening Project Group. Hepatitis B e antigen and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:168–74.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Papatheodoridis GV, Lampertico P, Manolakopoulos S, Lok A. Incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B patients receiving nucleos(t)ide therapy: a systematic review. J Hepatol. 2010;53:348–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. George SL, Bacon BR, Brunt EM, Mihindukulasuriya KL, Hoffmann J, Di Bisceglie AM. Clinical, virologic, histologic, and biochemical outcomes after successful HCV therapy: a 5-year follow-up of 150 patients. Hepatology. 2009;49:729–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network. Comprehensive molecular characterization of gastric adenocarcinoma. Nature. 2014;513(7517):202–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Camargo MC, Murphy G, Koriyama C, Pfeiffer RM, Kim WH, Herrera-Goepfert R, et al. Determinants of Epstein-Barr virus-positive gastric cancer: an international pooled analysis. Br J Cancer. 2011;105:38–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Murphy G, Pfeiffer R, Camargo MC, Rabkin CS. Meta-analysis shows that prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus-positive gastric cancer differs based on sex and anatomic location. Gastroenterology. 2009;137:824–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. van Beek J, zur Hausen A, Klein Kranenbarg E, van de Velde CJ, Middeldorp JM, van den Brule AJ, et al. EBV-positive gastric adenocarcinomas: a distinct clinicopathologic entity with a low frequency of lymph node involvement. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:664–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Peek RM Jr, Blaser MJ. Helicobacter pylori and gastrointestinal tract adenocarcinomas. Nat Rev Cancer. 2002;2:28–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Sokic-Milutinovic A, Alempijevic T, Milosavljevic T. Role of Helicobacter pylori infection in gastric carcinogenesis: current knowledge and future directions. World J Gastroenterol. 2015;21:11654–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  102. Fuccio L, Zagari RM, Eusebi LH, Laterza L, Cennamo V, Ceroni L, et al. Meta-analysis: can Helicobacter pylori eradication treatment reduce the risk for gastric cancer? Ann Intern Med. 2009;151:121–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Zucca E, Bertoni F, Vannata B, Cavalli F. Emerging role of infectious etiologies in the pathogenesis of marginal zone B-cell lymphomas. Clin Cancer Res. 2014;20:5207–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Weinstock GM. Genomic approaches to studying the human microbiota. Nature. 2012;489:250–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  105. Schloissnig S, Arumugam M, Sunagawa S, Mitreva M, Tap J, Zhu A, et al. Genomic variation landscape of the human gut microbiome. Nature. 2013;493:45–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Keku TO, Dulal S, Deveaux A, Jovov B, Han X. The gastrointestinal microbiota and colorectal cancer. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2015;308:G351–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Castellarin M, Warren RL, Freeman JD, Dreolini L, Krzywinski M, Strauss J, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma. Genome Res. 2012;22:299–306.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  108. Boleij A, Tjalsma H. The itinerary of Streptococcus gallolyticus infection in patients with colonic malignant disease. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:719–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Flanagan L, Schmid J, Ebert M, Soucek P, Kunicka T, Liska V, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum associates with stages of colorectal neoplasia development, colorectal cancer and disease outcome. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014;33:1381–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Mima K, Nishihara R, Qian ZR, Cao Y, Sukawa Y, Nowak JA, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum in colorectal carcinoma tissue and patient prognosis. Gut. 2016 Dec;65(12):1973–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Schwabe RF, Jobin C. The microbiome and cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2013;13:800–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  112. Bultman SJ. Emerging roles of the microbiome in cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2014;35:249–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Turati F, Rossi M, Pelucchi C, Levi F, La Vecchia C. Fruit and vegetables and cancer risk: a review of southern European studies. Br J Nutr. 2015;113(Suppl 2):S102–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Wang Q, Chen Y, Wang X, Gong G, Li G, Li C. Consumption of fruit, but not vegetables, may reduce risk of gastric cancer: results from a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Eur J Cancer. 2014;50:1498–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Li B, Jiang G, Zhang G, Xue Q, Zhang H, Wang C, et al. Intake of vegetables and fruit and risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Eur J Nutr. 2014;53:1511–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. De Ceglie A, Fisher DA, Filiberti R, Blanchi S, Conio M. Barrett’s esophagus, esophageal and esophagogastric junction adenocarcinomas: the role of diet. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol. 2011;35:7–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Jeurnink SM, Büchner FL, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Siersema PD, Boshuizen HC, Numans ME, et al. Variety in vegetable and fruit consumption and the risk of gastric and esophageal cancer in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Int J Cancer. 2012;131:E963–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. D’Elia L, Galletti F, Strazzullo P. Dietary salt intake and risk of gastric cancer. Cancer Treat Res. 2014;159:83–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Abnet CC, Corley DA, Freedman ND, Kamangar F. Diet and upper gastrointestinal malignancies. Gastroenterology. 2015;148:1234–1243 e4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Chao A, Thun MJ, Connell CJ, McCullough ML, Jacobs EJ, Flanders WD, et al. Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. JAMA. 2005;293:172–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Norat T, Bingham S, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Jenab M, Mazuir M, et al. Meat, fish, and colorectal cancer risk: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97:906–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Nitsche C, Simon P, Weiss FU, Fluhr G, Weber E, Gärtner S, et al. Environmental risk factors for chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer. Dig Dis. 2011;29:235–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. zur Hausen H. Red meat consumption and cancer: reasons to suspect involvement of bovine infectious factors in colorectal cancer. Int J Cancer. 2012;130:2475–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Aune D, Chan DS, Lau R, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, et al. Dietary fibre, whole grains, and risk of colorectal cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ. 2011;343:d6617.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  125. Ngo SN, Williams DB, Cobiac L, Head RJ. Does garlic reduce risk of colorectal cancer? A systematic review. J Nutr. 2007;137:2264–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Aune D, Lau R, Chan DS, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, et al. Dairy products and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Ann Oncol. 2012;23:37–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Wu S, Feng B, Li K, Zhu X, Liang S, Liu X, et al. Fish consumption and colorectal cancer risk in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Med. 2012;125:551–9 e5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Chan AT, Giovannucci EL. Primary prevention of colorectal cancer. Gastroenterology. 2010;138:2029–2043 e10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Song M, Garrett WS, Chan AT. Nutrients, foods, and colorectal cancer prevention. Gastroenterology. 2015;148:1244–60.e16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Lin HL, An QZ, Wang QZ, Liu CX. Folate intake and pancreatic cancer risk: an overall and dose-response meta-analysis. Public Health. 2013;127:607–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Vollset SE, Clarke R, Lewington S, Ebbing M, Halsey J, Lonn E, et al.; B-Vitamin Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration. Effects of folic acid supplementation on overall and site-specific cancer incidence during the randomised trials: meta-analyses of data on 50,000 individuals. Lancet. 2013;381:1029–36.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Vainio H, Bianchini F. IARC handbooks of cancer prevention, volume 6, weight control and physical activity. Lyon: IARC Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ. Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:1625–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Tilg H, Moschen AR. Mechanisms behind the link between obesity and gastrointestinal cancers. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2014;28:599–610.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Mayne ST, Navarro SA. Diet, obesity and reflux in the etiology of adenocarcinomas of the esophagus and gastric cardia in humans. J Nutr. 2002;132:3467S–70S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Aleman JO, Eusebi LH, Ricciardiello L, Patidar K, Sanyal AJ, Holt PR. Mechanisms of obesity-induced gastrointestinal neoplasia. Gastroenterology. 2014;146:357–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Pan SY, Johnson KC, Ugnat AM, Wen SW, Mao Y. Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Research G, Association of obesity and cancer risk in Canada. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159:259–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Rapp K, Schroeder J, Klenk J, Stoehr S, Ulmer H, Concin H, et al. Obesity and incidence of cancer: a large cohort study of over 145,000 adults in Austria. Br J Cancer. 2005;93:1062–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  139. Eliassen AH, Hankinson SE, Rosner B, Holmes MD, Willett WC. Physical activity and risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1758–64.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  140. Borch KB, Weiderpass E, Braaten T, Jareid M, Gavrilyuk OA, Licaj I. Physical activity and risk of endometrial cancer in the Norwegian Women and Cancer (NOWAC) study. Int J Cancer. 2017;140:1809–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Kerr J, Anderson C, Lippman SM. Physical activity, sedentary behaviour, diet, and cancer: an update and emerging new evidence. Lancet Oncol. 2017;18:e457–e71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Moore SC, Lee IM, Weiderpass E, Campbell PT, Sampson JN, Kitahara CM, et al. Association of leisure-time physical activity with risk of 26 types of cancer in 1.44 million adults. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176:816–25.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  143. Behrens G, Jochem C, Schmid D, Keimling M, Ricci C, Leitzmann MF. Physical activity and risk of pancreatic cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol. 2015;30:279–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Wu L, Zheng W, Xiang YB, Gao YT, Li HL, Cai H, et al. Physical activity and pancreatic cancer risk among urban Chinese: results from two prospective cohort studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2018;27:479–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Boyle T, Keegel T, Bull F, Heyworth J, Fritschi L. Physical activity and risks of proximal and distal colon cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2012;104:1548–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Je Y, Jeon JY, Giovannucci EL, Meyerhardt JA. Association between physical activity and mortality in colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Int J Cancer. 2013;133:1905–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Friedenreich C, Norat T, Steindorf K, Boutron-Ruault MC, Pischon T, Mazuir M, et al. Physical activity and risk of colon and rectal cancers: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2006;15:2398–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medical Oncology, Hacettepe University Cancer Institute, Altındağ, Ankara, Turkey

    Ömer Dizdar & Saadettin Kılıçkap

Authors
  1. Ömer Dizdar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Saadettin Kılıçkap
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ömer Dizdar .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medical Oncology, Hacettepe University Institute of Cancer, Sihhiye, Ankara, Turkey

    Suayib Yalcin

  2. Department of Oncology, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, USA

    Philip A. Philip

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Dizdar, Ö., Kılıçkap, S. (2019). Global Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Cancers. In: Yalcin, S., Philip, P. (eds) Textbook of Gastrointestinal Oncology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18890-0_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18890-0_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-18888-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-18890-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation