Abstract
Residential and commercial buildings are major energy consumers, accounting for roughly 20 percent of delivered energy use and more than 50 percent of electricity use worldwide.1 In terms of energy demand, buildings in urban areas, where a majority of the world’s population lives, are particularly important. Furthermore, there is a continuing trend toward urbanization, particularly in the developing world: From 2014 to 2050, the population in urban areas is projected to increase from 3.88 billion to 6.34 billion,2 with a corresponding growth in building floor space. Not only is the world urbanizing; it is also developing. As people rise out of poverty, they will demand more energy-consuming services, such as lighting, air conditioning, and television. As the number of city dwellers grows and they demand more services, there is potential for substantial increases in building energy use. The International Energy Agency projects global building energy use to grow at about 1.3 percent per year through 2040.3 Smart, ambitious policy can drive efficiency increases in building components, helping to decouple demand for energy from demand for building services. This decoupling is a key part of the transition to a low-carbon future.
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Notes
- 1.
“International Energy Outlook 2016” (U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2016), Table F1, https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/ieo/ieo-tables.php.
- 2.
“World Urbanization Prospects” (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2014), 20, https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014-highlights.Pdf.
- 3.
World Energy Outlook (International Energy Agency, 2016) Annex A: World, http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/publications/weo-2016/.
- 4.
“World Urbanization Prospects,” 1.
- 5.
Michael Rosenberg, “Stable Whole Building Performance Method for Standard 90.1,” ASHRAE Journal (2013): 33, http://eley.com/sites/default/files/pdfs/033-045-Rosenberg-WEB.pdf.
- 6.
Richard K. Lester and David M. Hard, Unlocking Energy Innovation: How America Can Build a Low - Cost, Low - Carbon Energy System (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 96.
- 7.
Jeffrey Rissman, “It Takes a Portfolio: A Broad Spectrum of Policies Can Best Halt Climate Change in Electricity Policy” Electricity Policy (2016), http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/2016-08-18-Broad-Spectrum-Published-Article.pdf.
- 8.
discount rate reflects the time value of money. When consumers have high discount rates, it means they value money more in the near term than in the long term. Conversely, a low discount rate means consumers are indifferent to receiving money now or in later years. In general, consumers tend to have high discount rates compared with other investment mechanisms, meaning they tend to overvalue money in the short run, even it means they will earn less overall.
- 9.
Rissman, “It Takes a Portfolio.”
- 10.
Amory Lovins, “Energy - Efficient Buildings: Institutional Barriers and Opportunities” (E Source, 1992), http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Energy-Efficient-Buildings-Institutional-Barriers-and-Opportunities.pdf.
- 11.
“Average Household Refrigerator Energy Use, Volume, and Price over Time” (Appliance Standards Awareness Project, 2016), http://www.appliance-standards.org/sites/default/files/refrigerator-graph-Nov-2016.pdf.
- 12.
Marianne DiMascio, “How Your Refrigerator Has Kept Its Cool over 40 Years of Efficiency Improvements” (Appliance Standards Awareness Project, 2014), https://appliance-standards.org/blog/how-your-refrigerator-has-kept-its-cool-over-40-years-efficiency-improvements.
- 13.
Jeffrey Rissman and Maxine Savitz, “Unleashing Private - Sector Energy R&D: Insights from Interviews with 17 R&D Leaders” (Energy Innovation Council, 2013), 32, http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/unleashing-private-rd-jan2013.pdf.
- 14.
Except for cases when eligible buyers fail to submit necessary claim forms or proof of purchase in order to receive the rebates to which they are entitled.
- 15.
“Long - Standing Problems with DOE’s Program for Setting Efficiency Standards Continue to Result in Forgone Energy Savings” (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2007), http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0742.pdf.
- 16.
Nina Zheng et al., “Local Enforcement of Appliance Efficiency Standards and Labeling Program in China: Progress and Challenges” (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 2012), https://china.lbl.gov/sites/all/files/lbl-5743e-local-enforcement-aceeejune-2012.pdf.
- 17.
Shui Bin and Steven Nadel, “How Does China Achieve a 95% Compliance Rate for Building Energy Codes? A Discussion about China’s Inspection System and Compliance Rates” (American Council for an Energy - Efficient Economy, 2012), http://aceee.org/files/proceedings/2012/data/papers/0193-0002B61.pdf.
- 18.
For example, see Shanti Pless et al., “How-To Guide for Energy-Performance-Based Procurement: An Integrated Approach for Whole Building High Performance Specifications in Commercial Buildings” (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, n.d.), https://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/rsf/performance-based-how-to-guide.pdf.
- 19.
For an idea of the size and relative success of ESCO approaches in different countries, see “Energy Efficiency Market Report 2016” (International Energy Agency, 2015), 110–17, https://www.iea.org/eemr16/files/medium-term-energy-efficiency-2016-WEB.PDF.
- 20.
“Property - Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) Financing of Renewables and Efficiency“ (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2010), https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/47097.pdf.
- 21.
“Inclusive Financing for Efficiency Upgrades“ (Clean Energy Works, n.d.), https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BzYyDNPW3cwwOFBzc3NyTTF2MEE/view; “On - Bill Energy Efficiency” (American Council for an Energy - Efficient Economy, 2012), https://aceee.org/sector/state-policy/toolkit/on-bill-financing
- 22.
OECD, “Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low - Carbon, Climate - Resilient Infrastructure” (OECD iLibrary, 2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264245129-en.
- 23.
“Title 24 Compliance” (Energy Performance Services), accessed December 19, 2017, http://www.title24express.com/what-is-title-24/title-24-compliance/.
- 24.
“Background on the 2013 Building Energy Efficiency Standards” (California Energy Commission), accessed December 19, 2017, http://www.energy.ca.gov/title24/2013standards/background.html.
- 25.
“2016 Building Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential and Nonresidential Buildings” (California Energy Commission, 2016), 30, http://www.energy.ca.gov/2015publications/CEC-400-2015-037/CEC-400-2015-037-CMF.pdf.
- 26.
“Building Energy Efficiency Standards Enforcement” (California Energy Commission), accessed December 19, 2017, http://www.energy.ca.gov/title24/enforcement/.
- 27.
“2019 Building Energy Efficiency Standards” (California Energy Commission), accessed December 19, 2017, http://www.energy.ca.gov/title24/2019standards/index.html.
- 28.
“Title 24, Part 6 Stakeholders” (California Energy Codes and Standards), accessed December 19, 2017, http://title24stakeholders.com/.
- 29.
“Public Participation in the Energy Efficiency Standards Update” (California Energy Commission), accessed December 19, 2017, http://www.energy.ca.gov/title24/participation.html.
- 30.
“California’s Energy Efficiency Standards Have Saved Billions” (California Energy Commission), accessed December 19, 2017, http://www.energy.ca.gov/efficiency/savings.html.
- 31.
“Gross State Product” (California State Department of Finance), accessed December 19, 2017, http://www.dof.ca.gov/Forecasting/Economics/Indicators/Gross-State-Product/.
- 32.
“California’s 2016 Residential Building Energy Efficiency Standards” (California Energy Commission, 2016), http://www.energy.ca.gov/title24/2016standards/rulemaking/documents/2016-Building-Energy-Efficiency-Standards-infographic.pdf.
- 33.
Ibid., 1.
- 34.
Michael McNeil and Ana Maria Carreno, “Impacts Evaluation of Appliance Energy Efficiency Standards in Mexico since 2000 Technical Report” (Super-Efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment Initiative, 2015), 4, http://www.superefficient.org/~7media/Files/PublicationLibrary/2015/Impacts%20Evaluation%20of%20Appliance%20Energy%20Efficiency%20Standards%20in%20Mexico%20since%202000.ashx.
- 35.
Ibid., 4.
- 36.
Ibid.
- 37.
Ibid.
- 38.
Ibid., 17-18.
- 39.
Ibid., 4.
- 40.
Ibid., 19.
- 41.
Ibid., 21.
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© 2018 Hal Harvey, Robbie Orvis, and Jeffrey Rissman
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Harvey, H., Orvis, R., Rissman, J. (2018). Building Codes and Appliance Standards. In: Designing Climate Solutions. Island Press, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-957-9_11
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