Abstract
In Chapters 2, 3 -and 4 urbanisation, network society and the spatial development policy are described as well as the specific form of agriculture, referred to as metropolitan foodclusters. As formulated in Chapter 1, the scientific aim of this publication is to fnd answers to the questions whether agroparks contribute to sustainable development in metropolises, how an agropark is developed and how the design should be realised. The scientifc method I have used to examine this aim is research by design. As far as the results of the design are concerned, research by design was based on two theories: the resource use efficiency theory and the theory of the three dimensions of landscape. To study the design process, I have used the co-design theory. In this final chapter, I place the conclusions from the research by design back in the context of urbanisation, network society, spatial development policy and metropolitan foodclusters, and I will attempt to give them meaning in the light of these social issues and challenges. This will be done in Section 7.1 with the resource use efficiency theory and in 7.2 with the theory of the three dimensions of landscape. In Section 7.3 I develop a methodical feedback system by combining and anchoring the fndings from the design process into the method of co-design.
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Notes
- 1.
Glendining M.J., A.G. Dailey, A.G. Williams, F.K. Van Evert, K.W.T. Goulding and A.P. Whitmore (2009). Is it possible to increase the sustainability of arable and ruminant agriculture by reducing inputs? Agricultural Systems 99: 117–125.
- 2.
None of this is a plea purely for spatial clustering. Tere’s an optimal point there too, which is determined by external circumstances. Yet a lot can be expected from bringing together glass horticulture and intensive livestock farming around logistic hubs. Intensive livestock farming also comprises dairy farms which have their cows standing in stalls the whole year round. But that is primarily because the spatial spread of these primary production businesses is so extreme in the former rural areas (partly as a result of decades of successful land reallotment, in which increasing the farmhouse plot was the predominant starting point, partly also because these farms originated on the site where much more land-dependent agriculture was once practised). And so in many cases any clustering of all these businesses, in which product processing from domestic products plays a less dominant role than the import and export from and to the external market, offers advantages. But the boundaries are determined by veterinary and phytosanitary factors. Directly because diseases can be transmitted and indirectly because of legislation that may impose a transportation ban in the event of an outbreak of a certain disease, which would then affect all parts of an agropark.
- 3.
In the WAZ-Holland Park and Greenport Shanghai designs this was first developed by including demonstration and education as crucial parts of the agropark, with the possibility of direct contact with consumers for the entrepreneurs. In IFFCO-Greenport Nellore a much more radical approach was taken, by making agroparks part of the intelligent agrologistics network around metropolises. In the Biopark Terneuzen example this aspect was highlighted in the dilemma of individual vs. collective electricity production. The solution that was designed (electricity generated on a large scale) was, in itself, the best one. But in the current electricity market in the Netherlands, it would appear to be more proftable for Dutch horticulturalists, who benefit from integrated electricity production (for assimilation lighting in the winter) and CO2, to work with individual, smaller scale (and thus less efficient) electricity generation. Which is why the glass horticulture in Biopark Terneuzen is appealing to Belgian horticulturalists, who do not work with assimilation lighting.
- 4.
De Wit C.T. (1993). Tussen twee vuren. In: Themagroep Landbouw-Milieu (ed.) Intensivering of extensivering. Studium Generale, Agricultural University Wageningen, Wageningen, the Netherlands: 16. ‘so “intensifcation or extensifcation” cannot be fulfilled by one or the other. Intensive agriculture should be applied wherever possible and extensive agriculture wherever necessary’.
- 5.
In the most extreme scenario which focuses on maximum reduction of land use, the area for cultivation with constant production falls from 127 mn to 26 mn ha (80% reduction), nitrogen surplus from 11 to 2.1 bn kg (81% reduction) and pesticide use from 400 to 21 mn kg active ingredient (95% reduction).
- 6.
Van Ittersum M.K. and R. Rabbinge (1997). Concepts in production ecology for analysis and quantifcation of agricultural input-output combinations. Field Crops Research 52: 197–208, also introduce knowledge-intensive and knowledge-extensive labour as a production factor.
- 7.
Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid (1992). Ground for choices; four perspectives for the rural areas in the european community. Wetenschappelijke raad voor het Regeringsbeleid, The Hague, the Netherlands.
- 8.
Van Ittersum M.K., R. Rabbinge and H.C. Van Latesteijn (1998). Exploratory land use studies and their role in strategic policy making Agricultural Systems 58: 309–330..
- 9.
Regeer B. (2007). Leren van biopark Terneuzen. Communicatie van kennis in context, Afdeling Wetenschapscommunicatie, Athena Instituut, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Hoes A., B. Regeer and J. Bunders (2008). Transformers in knowledge production. Building science-practice collaborations. Action Learning: Research and Practice 5: 207–220..
- 10.
The latter was in fact predicted by the success of the traditional study clubs of horticulturalists, who as competitors made use of their mutual proximity and who shared their knowledge, albeit selectively, with each other, and thereby instigated innovations.
- 11.
Possibly with the exception of the Koersbepaling Landelijk Gebied in the Fourth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning (Extra), but see Section 4.3 on this matter.
- 12.
Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid (1998). Ruimtelijke ontwikkelingspolitiek. Wetenschappelijke raad voor het Regeringsbeleid, The Hague, the Netherlands: 195–200.
- 13.
Kool A., I. Eijck and H. Blonk (2008). Nieuw gemengd bedrijf. Duurzaam en innovatief? Blonk Milieu Advies, SPF Gezonde Varkens, Gouda, the Netherlands.
- 14.
Ibid.: 65.
- 15.
Raad voor het Landelijk Gebied (2005). Plankgas voor glas? Advies over duurzame ontwikkeling van de glastuinbouw in Nederland. Report RLG 05/2, Raad voor het Landelijk Gebied, The Hague, the Netherlands.
- 16.
Ibid.: 30.
- 17.
Ibid.: 33.
- 18.
Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid (1998). Ruimtelijke ontwikkelingspolitiek. Wetenschappelijke raad voor het Regeringsbeleid, The Hague, the Netherlands: 151.
- 19.
Boonstra F.F.G., W.W. Kuindersma, H.H. Bleumink, S.S.d. Boer and A.A.M.E. Groot (2007). Van varkenspest tot integrale gebiedsontwikkeling : Evaluatie van de reconstructie zandgebieden. Report 1441. Alterra, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
- 20.
This map was composed by Herman Agricola, Alterra, Wageningen UR on the basis of the previously mentioned criteria.
- 21.
The most recent report on this action can be seen on the innovation network website: http://www.innovatienetwerk.org/nl/bibliotheek/nieuws/218/Juni2008PlannenAgrocentrumgepresenteerd: ‘On 18 June 2008, the plans for the Agrocentrum were presented at a conference on mega-stalls. The CLM report commissioned by Friends of the Earth Netherlands was published on the same day. Conclusion: “Mega-stalls as they are currently foreseen in the country, contribute nothing to any of these developments towards sustainability. Therefore, mega-stalls are no more sustainable than smaller, conventional livestock farming businesses. Agroproduction parks, with a combination of horizontal and vertical integration, seem to offer better environmental prospects than mega-stalls”. Various articles on the Agrocentrum appeared in the press as a result of this conference.’
- 22.
The following appears on the Zeeland Seaports website: http://www.bioparkterneuzen.com/cms/publish/content/showpage.asp?pageid=1236: ‘19-12-2008: Bio Base Europe is granted € 21 million to become the first open innovation and education center for the biobased economy in Europe. On December 12, Europe, Flanders and The Netherlands have joined forces within the framework of an Interreg IV project and allocated € 21 million to Bio Base Europe. Bio Base Europe is the largest Interreg project ever granted to the Dutch-Flemish border region. Bio Base Europe will build research and training facilities for biobased activities, in order to speed up the development of a sustainable biobased economy in Europe.’
- 23.
Kersten P. and R. Kranendonk (2002). Cop op Alterra; ‘use the world around as a laerning resource and be a learning resource for the world’. Report 546, Alterra, Wageningen, the Netherlands. See also Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid (2008). Innovatie vernieuwd. Opening in viervoud. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
- 24.
Much of this section comes from the book by Wissema J.G. (2009). Towards the third generation university. Managing the university in transition. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK, and is further inspired by article of Rabbinge R. and M.A. Slingeland (2009). Change in knowledge infrastructure: The third generation university. In: K.J. Poppe, C. Termeer and M. Slingerland (eds.) Transitions towards sustainable agriculture, food chains and peri-urban areas. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, the Netherlands, pp. 51–62.
- 25.
Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid (2008). Innovatie vernieuwd. Opening in viervoud. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. ‘It is not just R&D that offers prospects for regions. In addition to science and technology, testing/prototyping, commercialisation, production, supply and distribution are also important and every region has its own competencies and potential in various different areas. These considerations, in addition to the need to choose and implement at precisely the right moment the policy that matches the different development stages of regional clusters, lead the Council to the (…) recommendation (…) to strive in the regional innovation policy towards reticence in design and control by the central government and to allow for sufficient space for regional initiatives and specifcities.’
- 26.
Ibid.: 98.
- 27.
Ibid.: 70.
- 28.
Ibid.: 73.
References
Raad voor het Landelijk Gebied (2005). Plankgas voor glas? Advies over duurzame ontwikkeling van de glastuinbouw in nederland. Report RLG 05/2, Raad voor het Landelijk Gebied, The Hague, the Netherlands. [In Dutch].
Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid (1992).Ground for choices; four perspectives for the rural areas in the European community. Wetenschappelijke raad voor het Regeringsbeleid, The Hague, the Netherlands.
Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid (1998). Ruimtelijke ontwikkelingspolitiek. Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid, The Hague, the Netherlands. [In Dutch].
Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid (2008). Innovatie vernieuwd. Opening in viervoud. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. [In Dutch].
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Smeets, P.J.A.M. (2011). Discussion. In: Smeets, P.J.A.M. (eds) Expedition agroparks. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-719-6_7
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