Abstract
Patients with diabetes are at high risk for cardiovascular mortality, with the greatest cause being atherosclerotic vascular disease and its sequelae. Diabetic patients have a greater risk of permanent brain damage with carotid emboli, a threefold greater mortality from stroke, a poor prognosis for survival, and a twofold to fourfold greater risk of cardiovascular disease.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Suggested Reading
(1998) Effect of intensive blood glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes. Lancet 352:854–862.
(2000) Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Lancet 355:253–259.
(2003) Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care 26(Suppl 1):S5–S20.
Agarwal R. (2001) Add on angiotensin receptor blockade with maximized ACE inhibition. Kidney Int 59:2282–2289.
Agewall S, Fagerberg B, Attvall S, et al. (1995) Carotid artery wall intima media thickness is associated with insulin mediated glucose disposal in men at high and low coronary risk. Stroke 26:956–960.
American Diabetes Association. (1998) Consensus development conference on the diagnosis of coronary heart disease in people with diabetes. Diabetes Care 21:1551–1559.
Ardaillou R. (1999) Angiotensin II receptors. J Am Soc Nephrol 10(Suppl):S30–S39.
Aronson D, Bloomgarden Z, Rayfield EJ. (1996) Potential mechanisms promoting restenosis in diabetic patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 27:528–535.
Atkins RC. (1998) Dr. Atkins’ New Diet Revolution. New York, NY: Avon Books.
Azizi M, Linhart A, Alexander J, et al. (2000) Pilot study of controlled blockade of the renin-angiotensin system in essential hypertensive patients. J Hypertens 18:1839–1147.
Bailey CJ. (1992) Biguanides and NIDDM. Diabetes Care 15:755–772.
Ben-Menachem E, Axelsen M, Johanson EH, Stagge A, Smith U. (2003) Predictors of weight loss in adults with topiramate-treated epilepsy. Obes Res 11:556–562.
Benjamin L. (2001) Glucose, VEGF-A, and diabetic complications. Am J Pathol 158: 1181–1184.
Bjorntorp P. (2001) Heart and soul: stress and the metabolic syndrome. Scand Cardiovasc J 35:172–177.
Blumenthal M, Goldberg A, Brinkmann J. (2000) Herbal Medicine. Newton, MA: Integrative Medicine Communications.
Boden G. (2001) Pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes: insulin resistance. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 30:801–815
Boehm BO, Home PD, Behrend C, Kamp NM, Lindholm A. (2002) Premixed insulin aspart 30 vs. premixed human insulin 70/30 twice daily: a randomized trial in type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients. Diabet Med 19:393–399.
Bonow RO. (2003) Diet, obesity and cardiovascular risk. N Engl J Med 348:2082–2090.
Bristol Myers Squibb Company. (July 2000) Glucovance (glyburide and metformin HCL tablets) package insert. Princeton, NJ.
Brownlee M, Cerami A, Vlassara H. (1988) Advanced glycosylation end products in tissue and the biochemical basis of diabetic complications. N Engl J Med 318:1315–1321.
Buse J. (2000) Combining insulin and oral agents. Am J Med 108(Suppl 6a):23S–32S.
Carrozza J, Kuntz R, Fishman RF, Baim DS. (1993) Restenosis after arterial injury caused by coronary stenting in patients with diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 118:344–349.
Carswell Cl, Plosker GL, Jarvis B. (2002) Rosuvastatin. Drugs 62:2075–2085.
Carvalho CR, Thirone AC, Gontijo JA, Velloso L, Saad MJ. (1997) Effect of captopril, losartan and bradykinin on early steps of insulin action. Diabetes 46:1950–1957.
Castelli WP. (1988) Cholesterol and lipids in the risk of coronary artery disease—the Framingham Heart Study. Can J Cardiol 4(Suppl A):5A–10A.
Castelli, WP. (1983) Cardiovascular disease and multifactorial risk: challenge of the 1980’s. Am Heart J 106:1191–1200.
Cefalu WT, Skyler JS, Kourides IA, et al. (2001) Inhaled human insulin treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 134:203–207.
Chaturvedi N, Sjolle AK, Stephenson JM, et al. (1998) Effect of lisinopril on progression of retinopathy in normotensive people with type 1 diabetes. Lancet 351:28–31.
Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, et al. (2002) Acarbose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The STOP-NIDDM randomized trial. Lancet 359:2072–2077.
Christensen PK, Gall MA, Parving HH. (2000) Course of glomerular filtration rate in albuminuric type 2 diabetic patients with or without diabetic glomerulopathy. Diabetes Care 23(Suppl 2):B4–B20.
Clark RS, English M, McNeill GP, Newton RW. (1985) Effect of intravenous infusion of insulin in diabetics with acute myocardial infarction. BMJ 291:303–305.
Cohn JN, Tognoni Gianni. (2001) A randomized trial of the angiotensin-receptor blocker valsartan in chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 345:1667–1675.
Colwell JA. (2001) Treatment for the procoagulant state in type 2 diabetes. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 30:1011–1030.
Cooper M, Johnston C. (2000) Optimizing treatment of hypertension in patients with diabetes. JAMA 283:3177–3179.
Cooper ME. (1998) Pathogenesis, prevention and treatment of diabetic nephropathy. Lancet 352:213–219.
DeFronzo R, et al. (1995) Efficacy of metformin in patients with NIDDM. N Engl J Med 333:541–549.
Desai J, Geiss L, Muktar Q, et al. (2003) Public health surveillance of diabetes in the United States. J Public Health Manag Pract Suppl:S44–S51.
Despres JP. (2001) Increasing high density lipoprotein cholesterol, an update on fenofibrate. Am J Cardiol 88(Suppl):30N–36N.
Despres JP. (1998) The insulin resistance-dyslipidemic syndrome of visceral obesity: effect on patient’s risk. Obes Res 6:8S–17S.
DeStefano F, Ford ES, Newman J, et al. (1993) Risk factors for coronary heart disease mortality among persons with diabetes. Am Epidemil 3:27–34.
Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. (1993) The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 329:977–986.
Diabetes Prevention Research Group. (2002) Reduction in the evidence of type 2 diabetes with life style intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 346:393–403.
Dunn CJ, Faulds D. (2000) Nateglinide. Drugs 60:607–617.
Dzau VJ. (1998) Mechanism of protective effects of ACE inhibition on coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J 19(Suppl J):12–16.
Elkeles RS, Diamond JR, et al. (1992) Cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 15:820–825.
Estacio RO, Schrier RW. (1998) Antihypertensive therapy in type 2 diabetics: implications of the appropriate blood pressure control in diabetics (ABCD) trial. Am J Cardiol 82:9R–14R.
European Diabetes Policy Group 1999. (1999) A desktop guide to type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 16:716–730.
Evans A, Krentz AJ. (1999) Benefits and risks of transfer from oral agents to insulin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. S Dur Saf 21:7–22.
Factor SM, Minase T, Sonneblick EH. (1980) Clinical and morphological features of human hypertensive diabetic cardiomyopathy. Am Heart J 99:446–458.
Fava S, Azzopardi J, Muscat HA, Fenech FF. (1993) Factors that influence outcome in diabetic subjects with myocardial infarction. Diabetes Care 16:1615–1618.
Flegal KM, et al. (1998) Overweight and obesity in the United States: prevalence and trends. 1960–1994. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 22:39–47.
Fontbonne A, Charles MA, Juhan-Vague I, et al. (1996) The effect of metformin on the metabolic abnormalities associated with upper-body fat distribution. BIGPRO Study Group. Diabetes Care 19:920–926.
Ford ES, et al. (2002) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US adults: findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA 287:356–359.
Frick MH, Elo H. (1987) Primary prevention trial with gemfibrozil I middle aged men with dyslipidemia. N Engl J Med 317:1237–1245.
Froelicher V. (2001) Exercise testing in the new millennium. Prim Care 28:1–4.
Fu Y, Deedwania P. (2001) Management of hypertensive patients with diabetes mellitus. Cin Ger 9:22–36.
Galuska DA, Will JC, Serdula MK, Ford ES. (1999) Are health care professionals advising obese patients to lose weight? JAMA 282:1576–1578.
Garg A, Grundy SM. (1990) Nicotinic acid as therapy for dyslipidemia in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. JAMA 264:723–7226.
Giese M, Lackland DT, Egan BM. (2001) The hypertension initiative of South Carolina. Promoting cardiovascular health through better blood pressure control. JSC Med Assoc 97:57–62.
Ginsberg HN. (1998) Effects of statins on triglyceride metabolism. Am J Cardiol 81:32B–35B.
Ginsberg HS. (2003) Treatment for patients with the metabolic syndrome. Am J Cardiol 91:29E–39E.
Goldberg IJ. (2001) Diabetic dyslipidemia, causes and consequences. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:965–971.
Goldberg RB, Mellies MJ, Sacks FM, et al. (1998) Cardiovascular events and their reduction with pravastatin in diabetic and glucose intolerant myocardial infarction survivors with average cholesterol levels: CARE trial. Circulation 98:2513–2519.
Greco P, Eisenberg J. (1993) Changing physicians’ practices. New Engl J Med 329:1271–1273.
Grimble RF. (2002) Inflammatory status and insulin resistance. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 5:551–559.
Groop L. (1992) Sulfonylureas in NIDDM. Diabetes Care 15:737–754.
Grundy SM. (1997) Atherogenic dyslipidemia and the metabolic syndrome. Circulation 95:1–4.
Grundy SM. (2001) Coronary plaque as a replacement for age as a risk factor in global risk assessment. Am J Cardiol 88:8E–11E.
Gum P, O’Keefe JJ, Borkon AM, et al. (1997) Bypass surgery versus coronary angioplasty for revascularization of treated diabetic patients. Circulation 96(9 Suppl):II7–II10.
Gustafsson I, Torp-Pedersen C, Kober L, Gustafsson F, Hildebrant P. (1999) Effect of the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor trandolapril on mortality and morbidity in diabetic patients with left ventricular dysfunction after acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 34:83–89.
Halliwell B, et al. (1989) Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine. 2nd Ed. Oxford: Clarendon.
Harrigan RA, Nathan MS, Beattie P. (2001) Oral Agents for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: pharmacology, toxicity and treatment. Ann Emerg Med 38:68.
Harris MI. (2001) Racial and ethnic differences in health care access and health outcomes for adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 24:454–459.
Hasnain B, Mooradian AD. (2004) Recent trials of antioxidant therapy: what should we be telling our patients? Cleve Clin J Med 71:327–334.
Heinemann L. (1999) Hyperglycemia and insulin analogues: is there a reduction in the incidence? J Diabetes Complications 13:105–114.
Hiatt WR. (2001) New treatment options in intermittent claudication. Int J Clin Pract Suppl 119:20–27.
Hooper L, Summerbell CD, Higgins JP, et al. (2004) Reduced or modified dietary fat for preventing cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2:CD002137.
Horton ES, Clinkingbeard C, Gatlin M, et al. (2000) Nateglinide alone and in combination with metformin improves glycemic control by reducing mealtime glucose levels in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 23:1660–1665.
Imanishi M, Yoshioka K, et al. (1997) Glomerular hypertension as one cause of albuminuria caused by angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor in early diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int Suppl 63:S198–S200.
Inzucchi SF, Maggs DG, et al. (1998) Efficacy and metabolic effects of metformin and troglitazone in type II diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 338:867–872.
Joint National Committee. (1997) The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation and treatment of high blood pressure. Arch Intern Med 157:2413–2446.
Kabadi M, et al. (2003) Efficacy of sulfonylureas with insulin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 37:1572–1576.
Kahn BB. (1996) Glucose transport: pivotal step in insulin action. Diabetes 45:1644–1654.
Kendall DM, Harmel AP. (2002) The metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease: understanding the role of insulin resistance. Am J Manag Care 8(20 Suppl):S635–653.
Kirpichnikov D, et al. (2002) Metformin, an update. Ann Intern Med 137:25–33.
Knobl P, Schernthaner G, et al. (1994) Hemostatic abnormalities persist despite glycemic improvement by insulin therapy in type 2 diabetics. Thromb Haemost 71:692–697.
Kodama M, et al. (2000) Antiplatelet drugs attenuate progression of carotid intima thickness in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Horm Res 97:239–245.
Kornowski, R, Mintz GS, et al. (1997) Increased restenosis in diabetes mellitus after coronary interventions is due to exaggerated intimal hyperplasia. Circulation 95:1366–1369.
Koskinen P, et al. (1992) Coronary heart disease incidence in NIDDM patients in the Helsinki Heart Study. Diabetes Care 15:820–825.
Krolewski AS, et al. (1987) Magnitude and determinants of coronary artery disease in juvenile onset, insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol 59:750–755.
Kudlacek S, Schernthaner G. (1992) The effect of insulin treatment on HbA1C, body weight and lipids in type-2 diabetic patients with secondary failure to sulfonylureas. Horm Metab Res 24:478–483.
Langtry HD, Markham A. (1999) Fluvastatin, a review of it use in lipid disorders. Drugs 57:583–606.
Larme AC, Pugh JA, et al. (1998) Attitudes of primary care providers toward diabetes: barriers to guideline implementation. Diabetes Care 21:1391–1396.
Lazarus JM, Bourgoignie JJ, et al. (1997) Achievement and safety of a low BP goal in chronic renal disease. Hypertension 29:641–650.
Lenhard MJ, Reeves GD. (2001) Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusions: a comprehensive review of insulin pump therapy. Arch Intern Med 161:2293.
Loh KC, Leow MK. (2003) Current therapeutic strategies for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Acad Med Singapore 31:722–729.
Lopez-Candales A. (2001) Metabolic syndrome X: a comprehensive review of the pathophysiology and recommended therapy. J Med 32:283–300.
Lorber D. (2001) Revised clinical practice recommendations. Practical Diabetology March:36–38.
Lovestam-Adrian M, et al. (2001) Diabetic retinopathy, visual acuity, and medical risk indicators. J Diabetes Complications 15:287–294.
Lyons TJ. (1993) Glycation and oxidation: a role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Am J Cardiol 71:26B–31B.
Marshall JA, Bessesen DH. (2002) Dietary fat and the development of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 25:620–622.
Mattock MB, Morrish NJ, et al. (1992) Prospective study of microalbuminuria as a predictor of mortality in NIDDM. Diabetes 41:736–741.
McGill JB, et al. (1994) Factors responsible for impaired fibrinolysis in obese and diabetic patients. Diabetes 43:104–109.
McKelvie RS, Yusuf S, et al. (1999) Comparison of candesartan, enalapril and their combination in congestive heart failure. Circulation 100:1056–1064.
McKenney J. (2002) Combination therapy for elevated low density lipoprotein cholesterol. The key to coronary artery disease risk reduction. Am J Cardiol 90(Suppl):8K–20K.
Menys VS, Bhatnagar D, et al. (1995) Spontaneous platelet aggregation in whole blood is increased in insulin dependent diabetics. Atherosclerosis 112:115–122.
Miettinen TA, Taskinen MR, et al. (1969) Glucose tolerance and plasma insulin in man during acute and chronic administration of nicotinic acid. Acta Med Scand 186:247–253
Mogensen CE, et al. (2000) Randomized controlled trial of dual blockade of renin-angiotensin system in patients with hypertension, microalbuminuria, and non-insulin dependent diabetes: the candesartan and lisinopril microalbuminuria (CALM) study. BMJ 1440–1444.
Morgensen CE. (1998) Natural history of cardiovascular and renal disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: effect of therapeutic interventions and risk modifications. Am J Cardiol 82:4R–8R.
Motz R. (2004) Metformin associated lactic acidosis: fact, fiction or both. CV&R March–April:74–75.
Nash D. (2004) The metabolic syndrome: early clues, effective management. Consultant May:859–864.
Nathan DM, Roussell A, et al. (1988) Glyburide or insulin for metabolic control in noninsulin dependent mellitus: a randomized, double blind study. Ann Intern Med 108:334–340.
New JP, Bilous RW. (2000) Insulin sensitivity in hypertensive type 2 diabetic patients after 1 and 19 days with trandolapril. Diabetes Med 17:134–141.
Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corp. (2001) Starlix Package Insert. Basel, Switzerland.
Oommen KJ, Mathews S. (1999) Zonisamide: a new antiepileptic drug. Clin Neuropharmacol 22:192–200.
Ordoubadi FF, et al. (1997) Glucose-insulin-potassium therapy for treatment of acute myocardial infarction: an overview of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Circulation 96:1152–1156.
Owens DR, Zinman B, et al. (2001) Insulins today and beyond. Lancet 358:739–746.
Palumbo PJ (2001) Glycemic control, mealtime glucose excursions, and diabetic complications in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Mayo Clin Proc 76:609–618.
Pan X, Li G, Hu Y, et al. (1997) Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance: The Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care 20:537–544.
Parving HH, Lehnert H, et al. (2001) The effect of irbesartan on the development of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 345:870–878.
Petrella RJ, Koval JJ, Cunningham DA, Paterson DH. (2003) Can primary care doctors prescribe exercise to improve fitness? Am J Prev Med 24:316–322.
Potter MB, Vu JD, Croughan-Minihane. (2001) Weight management: what patients want from their primary care physicians. J Fam Pract 50:512–518.
Pyorala K, Pedersen TR, et al. (1997) Cholesterol lowering with simvastatin improves prognosis of diabetic patients with coronary artery disease. Diabetes Care 20:614–620.
Queale WS, et al. (1997) Glycemic control and sliding scale insulin use in medical inpatients with diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 157:545–552.
Rao AK, et al. (1984) Platelet coagulation activity in diabetes mellitus. Evidence for relationship between platelet coagulant hyperactivity and platelet volume. J Lab Clin Med 103:82–92.
Rao S, et al. (2004) Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose. Amer Fam Phys 69 (No 8).
Reaven GM. (1988) Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes 37:1595–1607.
Ritz E, Orth SR. (1999) Nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 341:1127–1133.
Rossing K, Christensen PK, et al. (2002) Dual blockade of the renin-angiotensin system in diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 25:95–100.
Rotbaltt M, et al. (2001) Evidence Based Herbal Medicine. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus.
Rubins HB, et al. (1999) Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol: VA-HIT Study group. N Engl J Med 341:410–418.
Samaha FF, et al. (2003) A low carbohydrate diet as compared with a low fat diet in severe obesity. N Engl J Med 348:2074–2081.
Saudek CD, et al. (1996) Implantable insulin pump v. multiple dose insulin for non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus; a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 276:1322–1327.
Schneider SH, Amorosa LF, Khachaduria AK, et al. (1984) Studies on the mechanism of improved glucose control during regular exercise in type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 26:355–360.
She P, Froelicher VF. (1998) EXTRA: an expert system for exercise test reporting. J Non-Invasive Testing II-4:21–27.
Sherwin RS, et al. (2002) The prevention or delay of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 25:743.
Sinha R, et al. (2002) Prevalence of impaired glucose intolerance among children and adolescents with marked obesity. N Engl J Med 346:802–810.
Sniderman A, Michel C, et al. (1992) Heart disease in patients with diabetes mellitus. J Clin Epidemiol 45:1357–1370.
Sobel BE. (2001) Acceleration of restenosis by diabetes. Circulation 103:1185–1187.
Soler NG, Bennett MA, et al. (1975) Myocardial infarction in diabetics. Q J Med 44:125–132.
Sowers JR, Lester MA. (1999) Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Diabetes Care 22(Suppl 3):C14–C20.
Staessen JA, Fagard R, et al. (1997) Randomized double blind comparison of placebo and active treatment for older patients with isolated systolic hypertension. Lancet 350:757–764.
Stratton IM, Adler AI, et al. (2000) Association of glycemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes: prospective observational study. BMJ 321:405–412.
Superko HR, Krauss. (1992) Differential effects of nicotinic acid in subjects with different LDL subclass patterns. Atherosclerosis 95:69–76.
Torlone E, Britta M, Rambotti AM, et al. (1993) Improved insulin action and glycemic control after long term angiotensin-converting enzyme induction in subjects with arterial hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 16:1347–1355.
Tuomilehto J, et al. (2001) Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 344:1343–1350.
Turner RC. (1999) Glycemic control with diet, sulfonylurea, metformin, or insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes: progressive requirement for multiple therapies. JAMA 281:2005–2012.
UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. (1998) Intensive blood glucose control with sulfonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes. Lancet 352:837–853.
UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. (1998) Effect of intensive blood glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes. Lancet 352:854–865.
Unger J. (2003) Targeting glycemic control in the primary care setting. The Female Patient 28:12–16.
Unger T. (2000) Neurohormonal modulation in cardiovascular disease. Am Heart J 139:S2–S8.
Vague J, et al. (1980) Obesity and diabetes. Acta Diabetol Lat 17:87–99.
Valmadred CT, et al. (2000) The risk of cardiovascular disease mortality associated with microalbuminuria and gross proteinuria with older onset diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 160:1093–1099.
Van den Berghe G, Wouters P, et al. (2001) Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 345:1359–1367.
Van Hoeven KH, et al. (1990) A comparison of the pathological spectrum of hypertensive, diabetic and hypertensive diabetic heart disease. Circulation 82:848–855.
Wagner E, Austin B, Von Korff M. (1996) Improving outcomes in chronic illness. Manag Care Q 4:12–25.
Wasserman DH, Zinman B. (1994) Exercise in individuals with IDDM (technical review). Diabetes Care 17:924–937.
Weber P, et al. (1997) Vitamin E and human health: rationale for determining recommended intake levels. Nutrition 13:450–460.
Williamson DF, Thompson TJ, Thun M, et al. (2000) Intentional weight loss and mortality among overweight individuals with diabetes. Diabetes Care 23:1499–1504.
Yanovski SZ, et al. (2002) Obesity. N Engl J Med 346:591–602.
Yki-Jarvinen H, Ryysy L, Nikkila K, et al. (1999) Comparison of bedtime insulin regimens in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 130:389–396.
Ziegler D, et al. (1997) Effects of treatment with the antioxidant alpha-lipoic acid on cardiac autonomic neuropathy in NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care 20:369–373.
Zucchelli P, Zuccala A, et al. (1995) Comparison of the effects of ACE inhibitors and calcium channel blockers on the progression of renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplan 10(Suppl 9):46–51.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
(2005). Risk Reduction in Patients With Diabetes. In: Type 2 Diabetes, Pre-Diabetes, and the Metabolic Syndrome. Current Clinical Practice. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-932-X:205
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-932-X:205
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-471-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-932-5
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)