Abstract
Before moving to the case studies of driftnet fishing, scientific whaling, and international trade in African elephant ivory with a focus on the period from 1987 to 1992, it is beneficial to look at the wider context of international wildlife protection and Japan’s action and inaction in this issue area. In this chapter, I first describe three international regimes on high seas fishing, commercial whaling, and trade in endangered species and Japan’s attitudes toward them. Then, I discuss the conservation principle of the wildlife protection regimes and explain the process by which Japan came to respect that principle.
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Notes
Malcolm N. Shaw, International Law, 3rd edn (Cambridge: Grotius, 1991), pp. 337–8. The convention entered into force in 1962, and Japan became a party to the convention by accession in 1968.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common Future: The Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 261–2.
For various international fisheries commissions, see, for example, M. J. Peterson, “International Fisheries Management,” in Peter M. Haas, Robert O. Keohane, and Marc A. Levy, eds, Institutions for the Earth: Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1993), pp. 249–305.
New Zealand Ministry of External Relations and Trade, The South Pacific Forum: 21 Years of Regional Cooperation (Wellington, December 1991), pp. 9–10.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Environment Agency, eds, Kokuren kanky8 kaihatsu kaigi shiryoshu [Collection of Materials for UNCED] (Tokyo: Ministry of Finance, Printing Bureau, 1993), pp. 190–4.
Andy Crump, Dictionary of Environment and Development: People, Places, Ideas and Organizations (London: Earthscan, 1991), pp. 100–1.
Japan Fisheries Association, Fisheries ofJapan 1991 (Tokyo, 1991), p. 24.
Fisheries Agency, Gyogyo hakusho: Heisei 3 nendo [White Paper on Fisheries: Fiscal Year 1991] (Tokyo: Norin Tokei Kyokai, 1992), p. 21.
Ibid., p. 16. However, the production value was declining from 1984 because Japan stopped catching lucrative fish in foreign EEZs. Japan Fisheries Association, Fisheries ofJapan 1991, p. 2.
UN General Assembly, 2nd Committee, 46th Session, Official Records, Summary Record of the 52nd Meeting A/C.2/46/SR. 52 (December 11, 1991), para. 61; UN General Assembly, 46th Session, Provisional Verbatim Record of the 79th Meeting A/46/PV.79 (January 8, 1992), pp. 64–6; Nihon keizai shinbun (December 21, 1991, evening edition), p. 2.
The IWC has lacked enforcement power. Melvyn Reader, “Profile: the International Whaling Commission (IWC),” pp. 82–3, Environmental Politics, vol. 2, no. 1 (1993), pp. 81–5.
Sakuramoto Kazumi, “Kujirarui shigen no kanri to IWC” [Management of Whale Resources and the IWC], pp. 98, 100, in Kitahara Takeshi, ed., Kujira ni manabu [Learning from Whales] (Tokyo: Naruyamado Shoten, 1996), pp. 98–122.
Peter J. Stoett, The International Politics of Whaling (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1997), p. 157.
M. J. Peterson, “Whalers, Cetologists, Environmentalists, and the International Management of Whaling,” p. 149, in Peter M. Haas, ed., Knowledge, Power, and International Policy Coordination (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997), pp. 147–86.
Julian Gresser, Koichiro Fujikura, and Akio Morishima, Environmental Law in Japan (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1981), p. 372.
Kat6 Yoshinobu, “Hogei to nihonjin” [Whaling and the Japanese], p. 82, Dokkyo daigaku kyoyo shokagaku kenkyu, vol. 28, no. 1 (September 1993), pp. 82–98
Stoett, The International Politics of Whaling, p. 58.
Peterson, “Whalers, Cetologists, Environmentalists, and the International Management of Whaling,” p. 182.
IWC, Twenty-Fourth Meeting (London, 1972), pp. 5–6.
Fukuzo Nagasaki, “The Case for Scientific Whaling,” p. 189, Nature, vol. 344 (March 15, 1990), pp. 189–90.
Nakajima Keiichi, “Hogei mondai ni kansuru futatsu no sokumen” [Two Perspectives regarding the Whaling Issue], p. 20, Refarensu (May 1994), pp. 5–36; Kawashima Noboru, “Hogei saikai no michi kewashi” [A Long Way to Resumption of Whaling], p. 24, Zen’ei (July 1993), pp. 24–6.
House of Representatives, Secretariat, Shugiin norinsuisan iinkai kaigiroku [Minutes of the Standing Committee on Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, House of Representatives] (July 29, 1987), p. 6.
Ibid., (July 28, 1987), p. 3; Suisan Nenkan Henshu Iinkai, ed., Suisan nenkan 1989 [Fisheries Yearbook 1989] (Tokyo: Suisansha, 1989), p. 23.
The IWC has granted observer status to a large number of intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations. Nakajima, “Hogei mondai ni kansuru futatsu no sokumen,” p. 32; Reader, “Profile,” p. 84.
Reader, “Profile,” pp. 82–3; The Independent (July 2, 1990). On the other hand, Japan was allegedly also involved in political maneuvering. A Japanese Diet member Yamada Kozaburo, who established the Japan-Seychelles Association, quoted Seychelles’s Minister as saying that a Japanese ambassador conditioned its aid to Seychelles on taking the side of Japan in the IWC in the early 1980s. House of Councillors, Secretariat, Sangiin norinsuisan iinkai kaigiroku [Minutes of the Standing Committee on Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, House of Councillors] (July 30, 1987), pp. 27–8.
House of Councillors, Sangiin norinsuisan iinkai kaigiroku (July 30, 1987), p. 7. See also House of Representatives, Shiugiin norinsuisan iinkai kaigiroku (July 29, 1987), p. 7.
Doi Zenjiro, Saikin hogei hakusho [White Paper on Recent Whaling] (Tokyo: Maruzen, 1992), p. 28.
IWC, Thirty-Third Report of the International Whaling Commission (Cambridge 1983), p. 21.
Komatsu Renpei, “Kujira to keizai masatsu” [Whales and Economic Friction], p. 93, Chuô koron (April 1986), pp. 82–109.
House of Representatives, Secretariat, Shugiin yosan iinkai kaigiroku [Minutes of the Standing Committee on Budget, House of Representatives] (February 20, 1992), p. 17; The Japan Times (8 November 1994); Komatsu, “Kujira to keizai masatsu,” pp. 97–8; Umezaki Yoshito, “Shigen hogo dewanaku jinshu sabetsu shiso da” [Not Resource Conservation but Racial Thought], p. 19, Sekai shuho (July 21, 1987), p. 18–21.
The Times (June 26, 1987). See also Peterson, “Whalers, Cetologists, Environmentalists, and the International Management of Whaling,” pp. 172–3.
Stoett, The International Politics of Whaling, p. 87; Akao Toshinobu, Chikyie wa uttaeru: Taikenteki chikyu kankyo gaikoron [An Agenda for Global Survival: An Ambassador Reflects on Environmental Protection] (Tokyo: Sekai no Ugokisha, 1993), p. 157.
Christopher S. Gibson, “Narrow Grounds for a Complex Decision: The Supreme Court’s Review of an Agency’s Statutory Construction in Japan Whaling Association v. American Cetacean Society,” p. 486, Ecology Law Quarterly, vol. 14 (1987), pp. 485–516.
House of Representatives, Shugiin norinsuisan iinkai kaigiroku (July 28, 1987), p. 3 and (July 29, 1987), p. 6; Suisan Nenkan Henshu Iinkai, ed., Suisan nenkan 1989, p. 22.
Nihon keizai shinbun (May 23, 1987, evening edition), p. 2; David Day, The Whale War, updated edn (London: Grafton, 1992), p. 125.
IWC, Forty-Second Report of the International Whaling Commission (Cambridge, 1992), p. 25; Fisheries Agency, Gyogyo hakusho: Heisei 3 nendo, pp. 19–20; Nihon keizai shinbun (May 28, 1991), p. 9; Mainichi shinbun (June 1, 1991), p. 3.
IWC, Forty-Third Report of the International Whaling Commission (Cambridge, 1993), p. 40.
Arne Kalland, “Whose Whale is That? Diverting the Commodity Path,” p. 168, in Milton M. R. Freeman and Urs P. Kreuter, eds, Elephants and Whales: Resources for Whom? (Basel, Switzerland: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1994), pp. 159–86.
The Financial Times Uune 30, 1992); Asahi shinbun (June 29, 1992, evening edition), p. 14. Although Japan, USSR, and Peru withdrew their opposition to the whaling moratorium in 1987, Norway did not do so. Thus, it was legal for Norway to resume commercial whaling.
Government of Japan, Environment and Development: Japan’s Experience and Achievement (Tokyo, December 1991), p. 13; Shima Kazuo, “Hogei mondai wo kangaeru” [Consideration of the Whaling Issue], p. 395, Sekai (August 1990), pp. 395–9.
IWC, Forty-First Report of the International Whaling Commission, p. 15; Asahi shinbun (August 4, 1990), p. 4; Asahi shinbun (May 27, 1991), p. 22; Asahi shinbun (July 4, 1992), p. 3.
Gareth Porter and Janet Welsh Brown, Global Environmental Politics: Dilemmas in World Politics, 2nd edn. (Oxford: Westview Press, 1996), p. 81; The Financial Times (October 9, 1989).
Porter and Brown, Global Environmental Politics, p. 82; Nishimiya Hiroshi, “Washinton joyaku niokeru yasei doshokubutsu no hogo” [Protection of Wild Fauna and Flora in the Washington Convention], p. 8, Kankyo (January 1988), pp. 6–9.
Kobayashi Toru, “Mizugiwa kisei no gaiyo” [Outline on the Shoreline Regulations], p. 11, Kankyo (January 1988), pp. 10–12; Kaneko Yoshio, “Washinton joyaku: Shu no hogo to eizokuteki riyo” [The Washington Convention: Species Protection and Sustainable Utilization], p. 25, Kankyo (January 1988), pp. 23–7. The seven ministries were the Environment Agency, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Health and Welfare, and the Cabinet Councillors’ Office on Internal Affairs.
Nishimiya, “Washinton joyaku niokeru yasei doshokubutsu no hogo,” p. 8; Hirayama Yoshiyasu, “Dai 6 kai Washinton joyaku teiyakukoku kaigi ni shusseki shite” [After Attendance at the sixth Conference for the Parties of the Washington Convention], Kankyo (January 1988), pp. 61–2.
Government of Japan, Environment and Development, p. 77. For more information on this law, see “Kisho yasei doshokubutsu no kokunai torihiki kisei ho” [Law for the Regulation of the Transfer of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora], Kankyo (January 1988), pp. 6–27.
Environment Agency, Kankyo hakusho: Showa 63 nenban [White Paper on the Environment: 1988] (Tokyo: Ministry of Finance, Printing Bureau, 1988), p. 97.
For a recent account of Japan in the CITES regime, see Phyllis Mofson, “The Behavior of States in an International Wildlife Conservation Regime: Japan, Zimbabwe and CITES” (PhD dissertation, Faculty of the Graduate School, University of Maryland, 1996).
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, How Japan is Dealing with Global Environmental Issues (Tokyo, 1990), p. 12.
Asahi shinbun (October 18, 1989), p. 3; The Financial Times (October 18, 1989).
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan’s Environmental Endeavors (Tokyo, 1992), p. 15. See also Akao, Chikyu wa uttaeru, pp. 172–3.
Environment Agency, Nature Conservation Bureau, Wildlife Protection Division, Wildlife Conservation in Japan (Tokyo, 1997), p. 11.
Nihon keizai shinbun (March 2, 1992, evening edition), p. 15; Osaka Yomiuri shinbun (March 12, 1992, evening edition), p. 2; The Japan Times (March 14, 1992).
Hiraishi Takatoshi, “DObutsu kaih8 no riron” [A Theory of Animal Liberation], in Kamo Naoki and Tanimoto Mitsuo, eds, Kankyo shiso wo manabu hito no tameni [For Learners of Environmental Philosophy], 4th edn (Tokyo: Sekai Shisosha, 1998), pp. 184–98. For the topic of environmental ethics, see, for example, Robert Elliot, ed., Environmental Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
John Passmore, Man’s Responsibility for Nature: Ecological Problems and WesternTraditions, 2nd edn. (London: Duckworth, 1980), pp. 73, 101.
Ibid., pp. 3, 101, 125–6. See also John Passmore, “Attitude to Nature,” in Robert Elliot, ed., Environmental Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 129–41.
J. Baird Callicott, “Animal Liberation: A Triangular Affair,” in Robert Elliot, ed., Environmental Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 29–59.
Peter Singer, Animal Liberation, new revised edn. (New York: Avon, 1990), pp. 8–9.
Tom Regan, The Case for Animal Rights (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), p. 243. Note that Regan differentiates the concept of inherent value from that of intrinsic value such as pleasure and pain. See ibid., pp. 235–9.
Sudo Jiyuji, “Shizen hogo wa naniwo mezasunoka” [What is the Aim of Protecting Nature?], p. 159, in Kato Hisatake, ed., Kanky6 to rinri: Shizen to ningen no kyosei wo mezashite [Environment and Ethics: Toward Symbiosis between Nature and Humans] (Tokyo: Yuhikaku, 1998), pp. 149–67.
IUCN, UNEP, and WWF, World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development (Gland, Switzerland, 1980), p. iv.
The second report supports the continuation of the commercial whaling moratorium, but gives no reason for it. IUCN, UNEP, and WWF, Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living, trans. WWF Japan (Tokyo: ShBgakukan, 1992), Chapters 4 and 16.
The concept of animal rights is as old as the late nineteenth century. In 1892, Henry Salt published a book on animal rights, which was reprinted a century later. Henry Salt, Animal’s Rights Considered in Relation to Social Progress, new edn (Clark’s Summit, Pennsylvania: Society for Animal Rights, 1980).
On international environmental NGOs, see Thomas Princen and Matthias Finger, Environmental NGOs in World Politics: Linking the Local and the Global (London: Routledge, 1994); Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), Chapter 4; Lasse Ringius, “Environmental NGOs and Regime Change: The Case of Ocean Dumping of Radioactive Waste,” European Journal of International Relations, vol. 3, no. 1 (1997), pp. 61–104.
Andrew Hurrell, “International Society and the Study of Regimes: A Reflective Approach,” p. 66, in Volker Rittberger, ed., Regime Theory and International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993), pp. 49–72.
Arne Kalland and Brian Moeran, Japanese Whaling: End of an Era (London: Curzon Press, 1992), pp. 10–11.
Michael Brown and John May, The Greenpeace Story, 2nd edn, trans. Nakano Haruko (Tokyo: Yama-Kei Publishers, 1995), p. 331.
Milton M. R. Freeman, “Science and Trans-science in the Whaling Debate,” p. 145, in Milton M. R. Freeman and Urs P. Kreuter, eds, Elephants and Whales: Resources for Whom? (Basel, Switzerland: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1994), pp. 143–57.
Al Gore, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993), p. 24.
Linda Starke, Signs of Hope: Working Towards Our Common Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 25.
New Zealand Ministry of Environment and Ministry of External Relations and Trade, New Zealand’s National Report to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Wellington, 1992), p. 53.
Fuji Research Institute, Kankyo yoran 92 [Handbook on the Environment, 1992] (Tokyo: Kokon Shoin, 1992), p. 31.
See, for example, Pratap Chatterjee and Matthias Finger, The Earth Brokers: Power, Politics and World Development (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 13–29.
New Zealand Ministry of External Relations and Trade, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: Report (Wellington, 1993), p. 43; New Zealand Ministry of External Relations and Trade, International Whaling Commission Annual Meeting: Brief (Wellington, 1992), p. 55. See also Akao, Chikyu wa uttaeru, pp. 166–7; Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Environment Agency, eds, Kokuren kankyo kaihatsu kaigi shiryoshu, pp. 192–4; New Zealand Ministry of External Relations and Trade, Environment Division, UNCED 92 Information (Wellington, 1992).
Sakuramoto, “Kujirarui shigen no kanri to MC,” pp. 104–6; The Independent (May 28, 1991). Immediately, Japan filed an objection to the sanctuary under Article 5.3 of the Convention.
Caroline Thomas, The Environment in International Relations (London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1992), p. 73.
Brendan F. D. Barrett and Riki Therivel, Environmental Policy and Impact Assessment in Japan (London: Routledge, 1991), Chapter 5; Helmut Weidner, “Japanese Environmental Policy in an International Perspective: Lessons for a Preventive Approach,” p. 494, in Shigeto Tsuru and Helmut Weidner, eds, Environmental Policy in Japan (Berlin: Edition Sigma, 1989), pp. 479–552. See also Government of Japan, Environment and Development, pp. 56–9.
OECD, OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Japan (Paris, 1994), p. 187.
Arne Kalland and Pamela J. Asquith, “Japanese Perceptions of Nature: Ideals and Illusions,” p. 31, in Pamela J. Asquith and Arne Kalland, eds, Japanese Images ofNature: Cultural Perspectives (Surrey: Curzon, 1997), pp. 1–35.
Isao Miyaoka, “Policy Legacies: Japan’s Responses to Domestic and International Environmental Problems,” Occasional Paper, Program on U.S.-Japan Relations, Harvard University (September 2000).
Government of Japan, Environment and Development, p. 77. In 1972, the Law for the Regulation of the Transfer of Special Birds was enacted to protect endangered birds in Japan and other countries.
Prime Minister’s Office, Kankyo mondai ni kansuru chosa [Survey on Environmental Issues] (1988) and European Community, The Europeans and Their Environment in 1986 (1986) (both quoted from Environment Agency, Kankyo hakusho: Showa 63 nenban [White Paper on the Environment, 1988] (Tokyo: Ministry of Finance, Printing Bureau, 1988), p. 119).
World Resources Institute, World Resources 1992–93: A Guide to the Global Environment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 237, 247.
For an account of the impact of the agreement on Japanese economy, see, for example, Reinhard Drifte, Japan’s Foreign Policy (London: Routledge, 1990), Chapter 6. In September 1985, the exchange rate was 230 yen to the US dollar; by January 1989, it was just 128 yen. Ibid., p. 71.
Sharon Begley with Hedeko Takayama and Mary Hager, “The World’s Eco-Outlaw?” Newsweek (May 1, 1989), p. 54.
Hanns W. Maull, “Japan’s Global Enviromnental Policies,” p. 363, in Andrew Hurrell and Benedict Kingsbury, eds, The International Politics of the Environment (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. 354–72.
Mototani Isao, Chikyu kankyo mondai dokuhon [Textbook on Global Environmental Problem] (Tokyo: Toyo Shoten, 1992), p. 139. See also Yuko Inoue, “Japan: A Thriving Market for Endangered Species,” The Japan Economic Journal (July 15, 1989), p. 28.
Environment Agency, Global Environment and Economy Study Group, Chikyu kankyo no seiji keizaigaku [Political Economics on the Global Environment] (Tokyo: Daiyamondosha, 1990), p. 223.
Day, The Whale War, p. 143; The Guardian (May 27, 1991); The Times (June 26, 1987). In 1991, however, Japan stopped the import of whale meat. Officially, the whale meat regulated under the IWC has entered the Japanese market from three sources since 1992: scientific whaling, frozen stocks from the pre-moratorium era and bycatch of whales by Japanese fishermen. TRAFFIC Japan Newsletter, vol. 11, no. 1 (November 8, 1995), pp. 8, 12; Nihon keizai ryutsu shinbun (December 17, 1992), p. 13.
Although Japan was the world’s largest exporter of fish products at one time, in 1987 Japan’s exports accounted for only 5 percent of the world’s total trade in fish thereby ranking tenth behind Canada, the United States, Denmark, Korea, Norway, Thailand, Iceland, the Netherlands, and China. In 1989, its exports of fish were valued at US $1,354 million, US $282 million of which was exported to the United States. Japan Fisheries Association, Fisheries ofJapan 1991, pp. 5–7.
OECD, OECD Environmental Indicators 1991 (Paris, 1991), p. 43. From 1984 to 1988, Japan maintained its annual marine catch (excluding fish farming) at about 11 million tons. Environment Agency, Kankyo hakusho: Heisei 4 nenban soron, p. 90.
Fisheries Agency, Gyogyo hakusho: Heisei 3 nendo, pp. 16–17, 24; Suisan Nenkan Henshu Iinkai, ed., Suisan nenkan 1993, pp. 89–90; Yomiuri shinbun (April 17, 1992, evening edition), p. 2; The Japan Times (April 18, 1992); Asahi shinbun (May 12, 1992), p. 5. Some Japanese argued that these fishing regulations reflected “Japan bashing.” Yomiuri shinbun (December 19, 1991), p. 15.
Fisheries Agency, Gyogyo hakusho: Heisei 3 nendo, pp. 122, 130–1; Nihon keizai shinbun (May 11, 1991), p. 3. Japan ratified the UNCLOS in June 1996, and then set up its EEZ. Asahi shinbun (February 25, 1996), p. 5; Asahi shinbun (December 15, 1996), p. 8.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan’s Environmental Endeavors, p. 4. 136. The Financial Times (June 15, 1992).
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Miyaoka, I. (2004). Wildlife Protection and Japan. In: Legitimacy in International Society. St Antony’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403948199_3
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