Abstract
Previous chapters have built a theoretical and historical context for the Bank’s anti-corruption programme. The complexity of the Bank’s approach also means that one has to have a full understanding of how the Bank works in order to evaluate its anti-corruption programme: its lending programmes and products, its evaluation processes, interactions between regions and sectors and its external relations. However, the size of the project undertaken means I must restrict myself to the Bank’s key four-pronged strategy. As Operations Evaluation Department (OED) points out, ‘the menu of potential actions to curtail corruption is very large so a framework is needed that provides guidance on ordering potential actions’.1 I have used the Bank’s own strategy to guide my evaluation and recommendations, following the logic of Bade Onimode, editor of the 1989 text IMF, the World Bank and the African Debt, who stated, ‘To evaluate the World Bank’s programmes, we should … use their own figures, their own language, to see whether what they set out to do has been done.’2
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Notes
Huther, J. and Shah, A. (2000), ‘Anti-corruption Policies and Programs: a Framework for Evaluation’, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 2501, December, p. 2.
Cited in Simon, D. (1995), ‘Debt, Democracy and Development: Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s’, in Simon D. et al. (eds), Structurally Adjusted Africa: Poverty, Debt and Basic Needs (London: Pluto Press), p. 24.
See Samoff and Stromquist’s early study of the Bank’s new role as ‘Knowledge Bank’. Samoff, J. and Stromquist, N. (2001), ‘Managing Knowledge and Storing Wisdom? New Forms of Foreign Aid?’, Development and Change, 32 (September), p. 639, note 13.
A phrase attributed to Moody-Stuart, G. (1997), Grand Corruption: How Business Bribes Damage Developing Countries, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Worldview Publishing).
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 43.
See http://wwwl.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/supporting.htm.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 43.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 44.
worla IianK (LUUu), ttelping countries comt7at corruption, p. 44.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 45.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 46.
OECD (1997), ‘Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions’, Internet accessed December 1998. Available at http://www.oecd.org/daf/cmis/bribery/20novle.htm.
OECD (2000), ‘Welcome to the OECD Anti-Corruption Unit’, Internet accessed October 2000. Available at http://www.oecd.org/daf/nocorruption/index.htm.
FATF (2000), ‘Welcome to the new FATF website’, Internet accessed October 2000. Available at http://www.oecd.org/fatf/index.htm.
UNDP (1999), ‘UNDP Announces Launch of Partnership Fund for Transparency at Ninth International Anti-Corruption Conference’, press release, 13 October.
UNDP (ZOU1), PACI’ Bi-Annual Report to BMZ (August 2000-January 2001) (New York: UNDP-PACT), p. 18.
See Global Coalition for Africa (1997), ‘Cornzption and Development in Africa’, paper read at the 1997 Policy Forum, Maputo, Mozambique, 1–2 November.
Galtung, F. and Pope, J. (1999) ‘The Global Coalition Against Corruption: Evaluating Transparency International’ in Schedler, A., Diamond, L. and Plattner, M. (eds), The Self-Restraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies (Boulder: Lynne Rienner), pp. 266–7.
World Bank (2001), ‘The World Bank Operational Manual’, Internet accessed February 2001. Available at http://wbIn0018.worldbank.org/institutional/manuals/opmanual.nsf/textdefinition 1?opennavigator.
Staff working on corruption do not seem, in the main, to distinguish between policy and strategy. Either they fail to recognize the difference, or feel it is unimportant to differentiate the two. When interviewed, one staff member indicated that the 1997 document, Helping Countries Curb Corruption, is a policy statement, because it was cleared by the Board. However, all documents published by the Bank have a lengthy clearing process with ultimate approval by the Board, and this has never been the sole determinant for making official policy statements. An original architect of the programme pointed out a specific passage in the 1997 document and described it as the policy statement: ‘Where corruption is widespread and affects a country’s development objectives and Bankfinanced projects, the Bank needs to raise the issue with borrowers and seek ways to help governments and civil society address it.’ See World Bank (1997), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 7. This statement was also highlighted as Bank ‘policy’ by Anita Baker, Manager of the Office of Professional Ethics (OPE) at the International Institute for Public Ethics Year 2000 Conference. See Baker, A. (2000), ‘Ethics: the View from Multilateral Institutions — WBG: a Framework of Integrity’, presentation at the International Institute for Public Ethics Year 2000 Conference, 27 September. However, a senior staff member contradicted these co-workers, saying that there is no policy statement in the form of one document, describing the 1997 document as a report and nothing more than that.
World Bank (2000), Reforming Public Institutions & Strengthening Governance: a World Bank Strategy (Washington DC: World Bank), p. 2.
Huther, J. and Shah, A. (2000), ‘Anti-corruption Policies and Programs’, p. 2.
Eigen, P. (2000), ‘Introductory statement by Peter Eigen for the press conference on the role of the World Bank in the fight against corruption’, TI Press Release, 31 August. It could be argued that Eigen sees an opportunity here for an expanded role for TI.
Jakobeit, C. (1999), ‘The World Bank and Human Development: Washington’s New Strategic Approach’, Development and Cooperation, November/December, p. 5.
Samoff, J. and Stromquist, N. (2001), ‘Managing Knowledge and Storing Wisdom?’, p. 641.
Samoff, J. and Stromquist, N. (2001), ‘Managing Knowledge and Storing Wisdom?’, p. 650.
Goldman, M. (2003), ‘The Power of World Bank knowledge’, Internet accessed 17 January. Available at http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/knowledgebank/goldmanarticle.html.
Mehta, L. (2001), ‘The World Bank and its Emerging Knowledge Empire’, Human Organization, 60 (2).
Khan, M. (2002), ‘Corruption and Governance in Early Capitalism: World Bank Strategies and their Limitations’, in Pincus, J. and Winters, J. (eds), Reinventing the World Bank (London: Cornell University Press), p. 165.
Khan, M. (2002), ‘Corruption and Governance in Early Capitalism’, p. 165.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 4.
Wolfensohn, J. D. (1999), ‘A Proposal for a Comprehensive Development Framework: A Discussion Draft’, 21 January. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/cdf/cdf.pdf.
Wolfensohn, J. D. (1999). ‘A Proposal for a Comprehensive Development Framework’, p. 32.
‘The expression [National Integrity System] is 01 recent origin, having emerged from discussions within the Transparency International movement and widely popularized by development agencies.’ Transparency International (2000), The Source Book 2000, (Berlin: Transparency International), p. 32. TI has produced a Source Book to assist countries in building a National Integrity System, with an emphasis on ‘integrity pillars’, including the executive, parliament, the judiciary, civil service, ‘watchdog’ agencies, civil society, mass media and international agencies.
Wolfensohn, J. D. (1999), ‘A Proposal for a Comprehenslve Development Framework’, p. 35.
McDonald, I. (2000), ‘From the Editor’, Finance & Development. 37 (2).
An evaluation conducted by the Swedish development agency, SIDA, backs this up. It found that projects on capacity building too often assumed incorrectly that ‘the beneficiary is willing and able to develop his/her capacity’. SIDA (2000), The Evaluability of Democracy and Human Rights Projects: a Logframe-related assessment (SIDA Studies in Evaluation — ITAD Ltd./ODI. Gothenburg: SIDA), p. 53 (emphasis in original).
Aguilar, M., Gill, J. and Pino, L. (2000), Preventing Fraud and Corruption in World Bank Projects: a Guide for Staff (Washington DC: World Bank), pp. 2–3; World Bank (1997). Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 29.
According to the 1997 World Bank Annual Report, ‘The Strategic Compact is a plan for fundamental reform to make the Bank more effective in delivering its regional program and in achieving its basic mission of reducing poverty.’ World Bank (1997), World Bank Annual Report (Washington DC: World Bank), p. 1. It is the Bank’s official business strategy. For more information, see http://www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/backgrd/ibrd/comsum.htm.
Since June 1997 fifty-three new procurement staff have been hired (sixteen in Washington and thirty-seven in country offices). The majority of new staff have gone to the ECA and AFR regions. World Bank (2000), The World Bank Procurement Function Annual Report FY99, p. 3.
‘The CPAR is intended to be a useful tool to diagnose the health of the existing procurement system in a country and, in the process, generate a dialogue with the government focused on needed reforms. The main purpose of the CPAR is to establish the need for and guide the development of an action plan to improve a country’s system for procuring goods, works and services.’ World Bank (2000), ‘Country Procurement Assessment Reports (CPARs)’, Internet accessed November 2000. Available at http://wwwl.worldbank.org/publicsector/cpar.htm. The CPAR has been used since the early 1980s but was redesigned in 1998. The old CPAR looked into the accountability of national bidding procedures, used when a contract was unlikely to attract foreign competition, to see if they were acceptable. The Bank decided this was not a particularly useful tool. Instead, the CPAR is now used as a diagnostic tool for the Bank and donors in general. They ‘broadened the scope’ from individual Bank projects to an assessment of overall procurement capacity as an element of governance. The CPAR is conducted jointly with the borrower and the Bank, with other donors sometimes involved as well. This self-assessment component is intended to ensure government ownership. Interview with senior World Bank staff member.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, pp. 7–9.
Aguilar, M. et al. (2000), Preventing Fraud and Corruption in World Bank Projects, pp. 3–9.
World Bank (1999), ‘Master Bidding Documents: Procurement of Goods and Users’ Guide’. Internet accessed October 2000. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/html/opr/procure/mdbgoods.html; World Bank (1997), ‘Standard Request for Proposals: Selection of Consultants’, Internet accessed October 2000. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/html/opr/consult/rfp/r-titlpg.html.
Aguilar, M. et al. (2000), Preventing Fraud and Corruption in World Bank Projects, p. 14.
‘The CFAA is a diagnosis of a country’s private and public financial management systems. Its purpose is twofold: (i) to help the borrower and the Bank assess and manage the risk that public funds will be used other than for agreed purposes (the fiduciary objective), and (ii) to support the borrower in the design and implementation of financial management capacity-building programs (the developmental objective).’ World Bank (2000), ‘Country Financial Accountability Assessment’, Internet accessed November 2000. Available at http://wwwl.worldbank.org/publicsector/cfaa.htm.
Aguilar, M. et al. (2000), Preventing Fraud and Cormption in World Bank Projects, pp. 15–16.
World Bank (1998), ‘World Bank Sets Up Hotline’, News Release, 30 October.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 17.
Wolfensohn, J. D. (1998), ‘New Measures to Combat Fraud and Corruption’, World Bank Staff Memo, p. 3.
Wolfensohn, J. D. (1998), ‘New Measures to Combat Fraud and Corruption’, p. 3.
World Bank (1999), Guidelines, p. 8.
Wolfensohn, J. D. (1998), ‘New Measures to Combat Fraud and Corruption’, p. 1.
Sierra, K. (1998), ‘Ethical Guide for Bank Staff Handling Procurement Matters in Bank-Financed Projects’. World Bank Operational Core Services Memo.
World Bank (1999), Living Our Values (Washington DC: World Bank).
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, pp. 18–19. This amendment about whistleblowers is definitely’a response to and part of anti-corruption initiatives’ at the Bank. The senior staff member I interviewed said that it is very difficult to write policy for whistleblowers, but it is vital for improving the workplace atmosphere and for providing an ethical workplace. Staff must have a safe way to raise issues and concerns without fear of repercussions.
USGAO (2000), ‘World Bank: Management Controls Stronger, but Challenges in Fighting Corruption Remain’, report to Congressional Committees, GAO/NSIAD-00–73, April, pp. 15–16.
USGAO (2000), ‘World Bank’, pp. 5–7. In 1998, US Senator Mitch McConnell, a member of the Senate Appropriations Committee which approves funding levels for the Bank, expressed great concern about alleged corruption at the Bank and called for the GAO report. He accused the Bank of being ‘secretive and rife with “cronyism and deceit”’ and called for the immediate resignation of US Executive Director Jan Piercy ‘for failing “to serve US interests”’. Ms Piercy was defended by her boss, US Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin, who nonetheless expressed concern over the corruption allegations. It is thus in the Bank’s best interest to ensure a transparent and well-publicized investigation process to ward off this type of attack. ‘World Bank President Defends Handling of Corruption Cases’, Bloomberg, 17 July 1999; ‘Rubin Calls Allegations of World Bank Corruption “Serious”’, Bloomberg, 17 July 1999.
UAO (2000), ‘World Bank’, p. 3 SG 34.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, pp. 19–20.
“Thornburgh, R., Gainer, P. and Walker, C. (2000), ‘World Bank: Concerning Mechanisms to Address Problems of Fraud and Corruption’, report to Shengman Zhang, Managing Director and Chairman of the Oversight Committee on Fraud and Corruption, 21 January (rev.), (internal document), pp. 2–3, 41–2.
Fidler, S. (2001), ‘Corruption Leads to Freeze on Trust Funds: World Bank Five European Governments Act after Organisation’s Staff were Found to have Received Kickbacks’, Financial Times, 7 Feb.; World Bank (2000), ‘World Bank Investigation Reveal Three Staff Members and Swedish Firms Engaged in Corruption; Staff Members Fired, Funds to be Reimbursed’, News Release No. 2001/144/S, 6 December; World Bank (2000), ‘World Bank Fires Three Staffers for Alleged Corruption’, Development News, 7 December.
‘NIDB Denies Fraud Allegation, States Position’, The Guardian (Nigeria), 13 December 2000; ‘Nigeria to Probe Corruption in Industrial Bank’, South African Broadcasting Corporation, 29 January 2000; World Bank (2000), ‘Briefly Noted’, Development News, 31 January.
World Bank (2000), ‘World Bank Warns of Investment Schemes Misrepresenting its Name’, News Release No. 2000/345/S, 17 May.
World Bank (2001), ‘Crackdown on Corruption in East Timor’, Press Release, 25 January.
TI (2000), ‘Ghana: World Bank Turns Off the Taps on Water Project’, The Newsletter, October, p. 11.
‘World Bank Launches Investigations Against its Former Manager’, The Nation (Kenya), 12 December 2001.
Thornburgh, R. et al. (2000), ‘World Bank’, p. 25.
Cooksey, B. (1999), ‘Do Aid Agencies Have a Comparative Advantage in Fighting Corruption in Africa?’, p. 2.
Cooksey, B. (1999), ‘Do Aid Agencies Have a Comparative Advantage in Fighting Corruption in Africa?’, p. 3.
In particular, see Harriss-White, B. and White, G. (1996), ‘corruption, Liberalisation and Democracy’, IDS Bulletin, 27 (2), pp. 1–5; Hawley, S. (2000), ‘Exporting Corruption: Privatisation, Multinationals and Bribery’, Corner House Briefing No. 19, June; Haggard, S. and Kaufman, R. (eds) (1992), The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Princeton: Princeton University Press); Watt, D., Flanary, R. and Theobald, R. (2000), ‘Democratisation or the Democratisation of Corruption? The Case of Uganda’, in Doig, A. and Theobald, R. (eds), Corruption and Democratisation (London: Frank Cass & Co.), pp. 37–64; Bayart, J-F., Ellis, S. and Hibou, B. (1999), The Criminalization of the State in Africa (Oxford: James Currey); Riley, S. (1998), ‘The Political Economy of Anti-Corruption Strategies in Africa’, in Robinson, M. (ed.), Corruption and Development (London: Frank Cass), pp. 129–59.
Defined by the report as ‘the actions ot inaiviauais, groups, or nrms both in the public and private sectors to influence the formation of laws, regulations, decrees, and other government policies to their own advantage as a result of the illicit and non-transparent provision of private benefits to public officials’. World Bank (2000), Anticorruption in Transition: a Contribution to the Policy Debate (Washington DC: World Bank), pp. xv, 32 (emphasis in original).
World Bank (2000), Anticorruption in Transition, p. 32.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 4.
World Bank (2000), Reforming Public Institutions and Strengthening Governance, p. 13.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruprion, p. 22.
Parts of this section draws on WBI’s website. This is available at http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/.
World Bank (2000), ‘Key Instruments for Institutional and Governance Analysis’, Internet accessed November 2000. Available at http://wwwl. worldbank.org/publicsector/keyinstruments.htm.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 24.
WBI (1999), New Empirical Tools for Anti-Corruption and Institutional Reform: A Step-by-Step Guide to Their Implementation (Washington DC: World Bank).
WBI (1999), New Empirical Tools for Anti-Corruption and Institutional Refonn.
Hutner, J. and snah, A. (Z000), ‘Anti-(;orruption Yolicies and Yrograms’, p. 6.
WBI (1999), Towards Collective Action to Improve Governance and Control Corruption in Seven African Countries, prepared as background for the 9th Annual International Conference Against Corruption (IACC), Durban, South Africa, 10–15 October.
WBI (1999), Towards Collective Action to Improve Governance and Control Corruption in Seven African Countries, p. 14.
WBI (1999), Towards Collective Action to Improve Governance and Control Corruption in Seven African Countries, preface.
WBI (1999), Towards Collective Action to Improve Governance and Control Corruption in Seven African Countries, p. 7.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 36.
WBI (1999), New Empirical Tools for Anti-Corruption and Institutional Reform.
Transparency International (2000), ‘Country Activities’, The Newsletter, September.
WBI (2000), ‘Ghana Anti-Corruption Coalition’. Internet, accessed November 2000, p. 2. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/pdf/guide_pdfs/08b-ghana_example.pdf.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 2.
World Bank (2000), ‘What is a Country Assistance Strategy?’, Internet, accessed November 2000. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/html/pic/cas/whatis.htm.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 57.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 63.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 38.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 38.
World Bank (2000), ‘World Bank Policy on Information Disclosure (Discussion Draft)’, Internet accessed September 2000. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/html/pic/disclosure/draftpolicy-en.pdf.
World Bank (2000), ‘Memorandum of the President of the International Development Association and the International Finance Corporation to the Executive Directors on a Country Assistance Strategy of the World Bank Group for the Republic of Ghana’, CAS No. 2018S-GH, 29 June, p. 3. It is of course also possible that the central government fears losing control of resources.
World Bank (2000), ‘Memorandum’, pp. 3, 5.
World Bank (2000), ‘Memorandum’, pp. 14–15.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 12, Annex C, p. 2.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 15.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 41.
World Bank (2000), ‘Key Points from the EAP Anti-corruption Advisory Group Meeting: Third Meeting with EAP Management Team’, Internet accessed November 2000. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/eapsocial/library/anticorrupt.pdf.
World Bank (2000), ‘India: Policies to Reduce Poverty and Accelerate Sustainable Development’, Internet accessed November 2000. Available at http://WBLN1018.worldbank.org/sar/sa.nsf/Attachments/GoodGovernance/$File/chapt4.pdf.
World Bank (2000), ‘Poverty Reduction and Economic Management in Europe and Central Asia’, Internet accessed November 2000. Available at http://wbIn0018.worldbank.org/eca/eca. nsf/66d6f5004ed085ca852567d 1 0011 a8b8/2adef1166610169685256 7f50004323 7?OpenDocument.
World Bank (2000), ‘Public Sector Development’. Internet accessed November 2000. Available at http://wb1n0018.worldbank.org/mna/mena.nsf/All/15E5A 7D635 C9AB368525695200586920?OpenDocument.
Burki, S. and Perry, G. (1998), Beyond the Washington Consensus: Institutions Matter (Washington DC: World Bank).
See World Bank (2000), ‘Community Driven Development: a Vision of Poverty Reduction through Empowerment’, mimeo, draft version only.
Worid Bank (1997), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 3. •
Even one of the Bank’s biggest partners in anti-corruption expressed concern regarding the potential for increased political conditionality and intervention in a sovereign country’s political affairs. In 1996, TI said, ‘We would not like to see the Bank dictating to governments and understand that it has no intention of doing so. Still less would we want to see elements of conditionality creeping in.’ Transparency International (1996), ‘TI supports World Bank initiative’, The Newsletter. December. However, subsequent publications have called on the Bank do just this: to reduce lending levels for countries that ‘do not have convincing anticorruption reform programmes in place and which do not collaborate with external efforts to promote such programmes’. Transparency International (2000), ‘World Bank Needs to Strengthen its Anti-corrup-tion Work, says Transparency International’, press release, 31 August.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, pp. 28–9.
World Bank (1997), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 27.
World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 29.
World Bank (1997), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 44. The Bank’s findings continue to support this. See World Bank (2000), Anticorruption in Transition, p. 79; Huther, J. and Shah, A. (2000), ‘Anti-Corruption Policies & Programs’, pp. 7, 9; Pope, J. and Vogl, F. (2000), ‘Making Anticorruption Agencies More Effective’, Finance & Development, 37 (2), pp. 6–9. These sources and others generally agree that anti-corruption agencies can be effective but require certain conditions: an independent judiciary, for example. These conditions do not exist in many of the countries the Bank lends to and would therefore not provide an effective entry point for an anti-corruption strategy. Interestingly, the Bank does not refer to the rather extensive and important work within political science on the effectiveness of such bodies. See, for example, the contributions by Moran, Theobald and Williams and Williams in Doig, A. and Theobald, R. (2000), Corruption and Democratisation. (London: Frank Cass).
World Bank (Z000), Tielping Countries Combat Corrupnon, pp. Zts-36, 72–99.
World Bank (1997), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, p. 5.
Brinkerhoft, D. with Kulibaba, N. (1999), ‘ldentitying and Assessing Political Will for Anti-Corruption Efforts’, USAID Working Paper No. 13, January, p. 3.
World Bank (1999), ‘Assessing Political Commitment to Fighting Corruption’, PREM Notes No. 29, September, p. 1.
Frank Vogl, formerly World Bank Director of Information and Public Affairs and now TI-USA, criticizes WBI’s work on media training, saying that the organization lacks credibility, is inconsistent with its own research and is too open to unwanted influence. Bretton Woods Project (2001), ‘World Bank Warned: Don’t Meddle with Media’, Bretton Woods Update, 23 (June/July), p. 8. This work is indeed proving controversial. Mark Tomlinson, World Bank Country Director of Nigeria, has recently called out for the government to remove its Official Secrets Act from its constitution to assist the media in the country to investigate corruption. Garba, K. A. (2001), ‘How Media can Boost Anti-corruption Campaign, by World Bank chief’, The Guardian (Nigeria), 15 February. This can be seen as an example of Bank staff becoming too involved in a country’s political affairs and ignoring the balance between the government’s needs and the public’s needs (or the donor institution’s needs).
Kaufmann, D. (1999), ‘New Frontiers in World Bank Programmes’, Democracy Dialogue, June (Washington DC: USAID-CDG), pp. 4–5. There is another apparent divergence in approach between PREM and WBI, and the two may be linked. The PREM strategy document acknowledges criticism about the ‘technocratic’ nature of its work and discusses moves away from this approach; however, in the same document, WBI describes its own approach as technocratic. See World Bank (2000), Reforming Public Institutions & Strengthening Governance, pp. 17, 151. A senior staff member that I interviewed believes that the work done by WBI is very different from the usual sectoral work being done, in that it is much more sensitive and could be accused of being very political (for example, media training, parliaments). Hence, WBI insists on focusing on the empirical and technical side of its work to avoid criticism in this area and must have high-level political support to avoid accusations of political interference.
United States Information Agency (1997), ‘Global Coalition on Africa to Help Fight Corruption’, Africa News Online, 17 November, p. 2, available at http://www.africanews.org/usafrica/stories/19971117_feat3.htm1.
‘Mkapa Can’t Fight Corruption Singlehandedly’, Observer (Tanzania), 5 October 1997; ‘Mkapa, MacNamara [sic] Agree about Corruption’, The Guardian (Tanzania), 3 October 1997, pp. 1, 2; ‘Ex-WB Chief Urges Transparency’, Daily News, 4 October 1997; Djiwan, H. (1997), ‘Kerekou est pret a lutter contre la corruption’, Le Citoyen, 3 September, p. 3; Djiwan, H. (1997), ‘La guerre contre la corruption’, Le Citoyen, 2 September, p. 3; De Sousa, S. (1997), ‘Conference-lebat de la Coalition mondiale pour l’Afrique (CMA) et Transparency International (TI): Pour consolider la moralisation de la vie publique’, Echos Nation, 2 September.
Mwambando, L. (1997), ‘Reform Tendering in IRP II — MacNamara [sic]’, Observer (Tanzania), October. See also, Mwakisyala, J. (1997), ‘Donors May Freeze Aid to Tanzania Over Corruption’ The East African, 6–12 October, pp. 1, 2; ‘World Bank to Set New Conditions on Aid to Tanzania — MacNamara [sic]’, Observer (Tanzania), October 1997, pp. 1, 3.
In a study of the World Bank undertaken immediately after McNamara’s retirement, Ayres concluded: ‘Instead of countries coming to the Bank with identifiable projects perceived as possible solutions to existing problems, the Bank went to countries with solutions and requested the identification of problems for potential funding.’ I would suggest that McNamara’s GCA trip can be construed as a continuation of this policy. Ayres, R. (1983), Banking on the Poor: the World Bank and World Poverty (London: MIT Press), p. 215.
worla 1fanK (GUUi), ‘wnat is C.;rvrl Society!’, Internet, 10 January, accessed 10 August 2001. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/wbp/scapital/sources/civill.htm#top.
Nagle, J. and Mahr, A. (1999), Democracy and Democratization, p. 64. For example, Jeffries points out that all World Bank discussions on civil society exclude any mention of trade unions. Jeffries, R. (1993), ‘The State, Structural Adjustment and Good Government in Africa’, Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 31 (1), p. 32.
Kasfir, N. (1998), ‘Introduction: the Conventional Notion of Civil Society: a Critique’, in Kasfir, N. (ed.), Civil Society and Democracy in Africa: Critical Perspectives (London: Frank Cass), p. 1. 167 Abrahamsen, R. (2000), Disciplining Democracy: Development Discourse and Good Governance in Africa (London: Zed Books), p. 52.
Abrahamsen, R. (2000), Disciplining Democracy, p. 56. This finding is also reported in Hearn, J. and Robinson, M. (2000), ‘Civil Society and Democracy Assistance in Africa’, in Burnell, P. (ed.), Democracy Assistance: International Co-operation for Democratization (London: Frank Cass), pp. 241–62.
Francis, P. (2001), ‘Participatory Development at the World Bank: the Primacy of Process’, in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U. (eds), Participation: the New Tyranny? (London: Zed Books), pp. 81, 87.
Abrahamsen, R. (2000), Disciplining Democracy, pp. 56–9.
Abrahamsen, R. (2000), Disciplining Democracy, p. 59. This includes a partial quote from World Bank (1989), Sub-Saharan Africa: from Crisis to Sustainable Growth (Washington DC: World Bank), p. 58.
Ottaway, M. and Carothers, T. (2000), ‘Toward Civil Society Realism’, in Ottaway, M. and Carothers, T. (eds), Funding Virtue: Civil Society Aid and Democracy Promotion (Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), p. 299.
One example is the 31st December Women’s Movement (31stDWM), headed by the wife of former Ghanaian president Jerry Rawlings. It was originally part of the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC), Rawling’s political party, and was used to generate political support for Rawling’s campaign from women. However, in the 1980s, the 31stDWM withdrew from the PNDC to become an NGO, in order to receive aid money. Its nature may have changed but its purpose remains the same. Sandbrook, R. and Oelbaum, J. (1997), ‘Reforming Dysfunctional Institutions Through Democratization? Reflections on Ghana’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 35 (4), pp. 623–5.
Cooksey, B. (1999), ‘Do Aid Agencies Have a Comparative Advantage in Fighting Corruption in Africa?’, paper given at the 9th International Anti-Corruption Conference (IACC), Durban, South Africa, 10–15 October, p. 16.
Nelson, P. (1995), The World Bank and Non-Governmental Organizations: the Limits of Non-political Development (London: Macmillan), pp. 112–41.
Some NGOs include IRIS, Global Coahtion tor Africa, Centro Latinoamericano de Administracion para le DeSarrollo, Carter Center, Asia Foundation, Civil Service College (UK), Open Society Institute, Escola de Administracao Fazendaria (Brazil), Ford Foundation, Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Danish Center for Human Rights, Institute for Democracy in South Africa, National Democratic Institute, Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (Sweden), Centre QuestAfricain des Media et du Developpment, Association of Journalists (Tanzania), Uganda Management Institute, Radio Nederland and the Groupe de Recherche et d’Echanges Technologiques. For these and others, see World Bank (2000), Helping Countries Combat Corruption, pp. 31–2.
World Rainforest Movement (2000), ‘Chad-Cameroon: the World Bank Again Shows Who it Serves’, WRM Bulletin No. 35, June.
Brown, P. (2002), ‘Chad Oil Pipeline Under Attack for Harming the Poor’, The Guardian (UK), 27 September.
See Klein Haarhuis, C. and Leeuw, F. (2000). ‘Fighting Corruption: Evaluating Impact and the World Bank Institute’s Program Theory’, mimeo, University of Utrecht, p. 7; Klein Haarhuis, C. and Leeuw, F. (2000), ‘Measuring and Explaining Variance between Anti-Corruption Policies’, paper presented at the EES Conference — Working Group Realist Evaluations, Lausanne, 12–14 October 2000, p. 6.
Finch, C. D. (1996), ‘G7 Corruption Project’, The International Economy, 10 (6), p. 26.
Elliott, L. (2001), ‘Leak Reveals Crisis at the World Bank’, The Guardian (London), 31 January; World Bank (2001), ‘Soul-searching Uncovers Hidden Malaise at World Bank’, Development News, 31 January; Hoyos, C. (2001), ‘James Wolfensohn’s Self-created Storm’, Financial Times, 30 January.
Cited in Wilks, A. (2001), ‘Overstretched and Underloved: World Bank Faces Strategy Decisions’, Bretton Woods Project Briefing Paper, February, P. 3.
Caufield refers here to Sir William Ryrie, the former head of the IFC. According to Caufield, ‘Ryrie… argued that the Bank was institutionally incapable of… “using its influence to bring about a reduction in state activity”.’ Caufield, C. (1997), Masters of Illusion: the World Bank and the Poverty of Nations (New York: Henry Holt and Company), p. 279.
Caufteld, C. (1997), Masters of Illusion, p. 306. Cited also in Wilks, A. (2001), ‘Overstretched and Underloved’, p. 1.
Huther, J. and Shah, A. (2000), ‘Anti-Corruption Policies and Programs’, p. 2.
Transparency International (2000), ‘World Bank Needs to Strengthen its Anti-corruption Work’, TI Press Release, 31 August 2000.
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Marquette, H. (2003). The World Bank’s Anti-Corruption Programme. In: Corruption, Politics and Development. International Political Economy Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403943736_4
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