Abstract
The modern era of migration in unprecedented numbers and over unprecedented distances is directly linked to the spread of industrial capitalism. This was fuelled in part by the wealth generated by discoveries from the mid-nineteenth century of precious metals and gemstones in North America, South Africa and Australia. The resulting explosion of international trade was further accelerated by the diffusion of technological innovation such as railways and steamships. This, plus the gradual abolition of slavery as a form of cheap labour, provided incentive and opportunity for peoples especially from Europe but also from East Asia to seek work and wealth on what earlier had seemed impossibly remote continents.
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Notes
Foreign population of Tokyo, Alan Takeo Moriyama, Imingaisha: Japanese Emigration Companies and Hawaii, 1894–1908, Honolulu 1985, p. xviii.
Takahashi Yukiharu, Nikkei Burajiru Iminshi, Tokyo 1993, p. 10.
Thomas Sowell, Migrations and Cultures: A World View, NY 1996, p. 22.
On Hawaiian migrant ambitions and experiences, Moriyama 1985, pp. xix, 16–18, 26–31; Ichioka, Yuji, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants 1885–1924, NY 1988, p. 40.
1894 regulations, Konno Toshihiko and Fujisaki Yasuo, Iminshi 1: Nambei-hen, Tokyo 1994, pp. 19–20; Moriyama 1985, pp. 33–7; Ichioka 1988, p. 47.
Early migrants to Peru, Irie, Toraji, ‘History of Japanese migration to Peru’ (parts 1 and 2), The Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 31, August 1951, pp. 443–8, November 1951, pp. 648–53; C. Harvey Gardiner, The Japanese and Peru 1873–1973, Albuquerque 1975, pp. 23–7. The Japanese regional newspaper, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 1 March 1908, contained a report that the Peruvian government was about to impose an extra heavy tax on Chinese immigration but not on Japanese migrants.
1803 sailors, also 1869 suicide, Tsunoda Yoshizumi, Burajiru Hiroshima-kenjin Hattenshi Narabi-ni Kenjin Meibo, Sao Paulo 1967, p. 27.
Japanese circus, San Pauro Jimbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo (ed.), Burajiru Nihon Iminshi Nempyō, Akita 1997, p. 14.
Mita Chiyoko, ‘Burajiru no imin seisaku to Nihon imin: Beikoku hai-Nichi Undo no hankyō no ichi jirei to shite’, Miwa Kimitada (ed.), Nichi-Bei Kiki no Kigen to Hai-Nichi Iminhō, Tokyo 1997, p. 435.
Jeffrey Lesser, Negotiating National Identity: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil, Durham 1999, pp. 15–35, quotation on p. 19. Some went even further. Lesser, p. 28, adds a quote from one member of the Bahian state legislative assembly in the 1870s describing the Chinese as ‘deformed both physically and morally; [who] use opium, kill their children, are disloyal, egotistical and are given to begging; their only virtue is patience’.
Population and migrant figures, Boris Fausto, ‘Brazil: the social and political structures of the First Republic, 1889–1930’, Leslie Bethell (ed.), Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 5, c. 1870 to 1930, Cambridge 1986, pp. 779, 786; E. Bradford Burns, A History of Brazil, 2nd edn, NY 1980, pp. 242, 264–5; ‘whitening’ and European migrants,
George Reid Andrews, ‘Brazilian racial democracy, 1900–90: an American counterpoint’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 31, 3, 1996, pp. 485–6; also Mita 1997, p. 436.
Gilberto Freyre, Order and Progress: Brazil pom Monarchy to Republic, NY 1970, pp. 256–7.
Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910, Berkeley 1995, pp. 295–6.
Migrants to Hokkaido, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 6 June 1907; to Hawaii, Moriyama 1985, p. 52.
Sugimura and Brazil, Takahashi 1993, pp. 17–18; Konno/Fujisaki 1994, p. 28; Tsunoda 1967, p. 28. Amazonas press and Russo-Japanese war, Tsuji Kotarō, Burajiru no Dōhō o Tazunete, Tokyo 1930, p. 279.
On Mizuno’s views of Brazil and the assistance given by Minister Sugimura, see also Mizuno Ryō, ‘Waga imin no dai hattenchi Nambei Burajiru ni okeru Nihon rōdōsha no kangei’, Jitsugyō Kurabu, no. 2, April 1908, pp. 44–7. On Mizuno and ex-soldiers as emigrants, Takahashi 1993, pp. 20–1;
Handa Tomoo, Imin no Seikatsu no Rekishi: Burajiru Nikkeijin no Ayunda Michi, Sao Paulo, 1970, p. 82. On the decline of Italian labour conditions circa 1899–1900, Takahashi 1993, p. 15; Konno/Fujisaki 1994, p. 22.
Nambei Tokō Shōken Kaisha advert, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 23 April 1908.
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© 2001 Stewart Lone
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Lone, S. (2001). Leaving: Japan’s Entry into a World of Migration, 1885–1905. In: The Japanese Community in Brazil, 1908–1940. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403932792_2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403932792_2
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