The Garuda Takes Flight: From the Colonial Period to Independence

Abstract

From the end of the nineteenth century onwards, Indonesian society began to change dramatically. A new, educated class of indigenous administrators became exposed to ‘modern’ ideas. At the same time as the colonial state provided the aspiring Indonesian intellectuals with a common enemy, it also offered them the intellectual and bureaucratic tools for their endeavours. Not only was nationalism introduced from abroad; feminism, Marxist socialism and Modernist Islam — three other major reform movements — entered Indonesia from afar, the first two from the West and the other from the Middle East. I include feminism here because it is often neglected by ‘male-stream’ historiographers (such as Legge 1964). Together, these modern ideas appealed to widespread feelings of inferiority and exploitation, while holding out the promise of a brighter future.

And slowly it dawned upon my mind’s eye that at this moment it is not possible for an indigenous young girl, to stand alone, to work in public. She is threatened by a great danger from the side of men. For a Javanese man no woman is too ugly, we know that now.

Kartini, in a letter dated 14 July 1903 (Kartini 1987: 309)