Abstract
As the examples of asylum seekers, the politics of compassion, research, and standards have suggested, bureaucratization is not something external to society. It unfolds through the actors who are targeted by it and who, consciously or not, play an active part in this process. The neoliberal art of government operates through the intermediary of individuals who, as we have seen, are a fundamental and paradoxical cog in the production of indifference. It is this sense in which we can say that what we are witnessing is not a bureaucratization “from on high,” but a much wider and more complex process of “bureaucratic participation.”1 This participation stems from different processes, but these all converge to shape bureaucratization.
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Notes
Annelise Riles, “Introduction. In Response,” in i (ed.), Documents. Artefacts of Modern Knowledge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), p. 17.
Claude Lefort, “What is Bureaucracy?” in The Political Forms of Modern Society. Bureaucracy, Democracy, Totalitarianism (ed. and intro. John B. Thompson) (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1986), pp. 120–121. The translation has been lightly edited.
Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, trans. Steven Rendall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Jean-François Bayart, “Le politique par le bas en Afrique noire,” Politique africaine, 1 (1981): 53–82;
Jean-François Bayart, Achille Mbembe, and Comi Toulabor, Le Politique par le bas en Afrique Noire (Paris: Karthala, 2008).
This conceptualization cornes from John Lonsdale, “The Conquest State of Kenya, 1895–1905,” in Jaap A. de Moor and H. L. Wesseling (eds.), Imperialism and War. Essays on Colonial Wars in Asia and Africa (Leiden: Brill, 1989).
There is a vast literature on expertise as a market. For the lucrative aspect, see Benjamin Singer, “Towards a Sociology of Standards. Problems of Criterial Society,” The Canadian Journal of Sociology, 21 (2) (Spring 1996): 203–22;
Craig N. Murphy and Joanne Yates, The International Organization for Standardization. Global Governance Through Voluntary Consensus (London; New York: Routledge, 2009); for the industrial aspect, on auditing, see
Michael Power, The Audit Explosion (London: Demos, 1994) and The Audit Society. Rituals of Verification (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997);
Pierre Lascoumes and Dominique Lorrain, “Les trous noirs du pouvoir. Les intermédiaires de l’action publique,” Sociologie du travail, 49 (2007): 1–118 and
Dominique Lorrain, “Le marché a dit. Intermédiaires financiers et managers dans le secteur électrique,” Sociologie du travail, 49 (2007): 1–118;
Olivier Vallée, La Police morale de l’anticorruption. Cameroun, Nigeria (Paris: Karthala, 2010) on the industry of criteria and the bureaucracy of the war on corruption;
Gilles Favarel-Garrigues, Thierry Godefroy, and Pierre Lascoumes, Les Sentinelles de l’argent sale. Les banques aux prises avec ľ antiblanchiment (Paris: La Découverte, 2009) on the industry of norms, lists, and software in the war on money laundering.
Nils Brunsson and Bengt Jacobsson et al., A World of Standards (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000);
Michel Callon (ed.), The Laws of the Market (Blackwell: Oxford, 1998);
Bruno Latour, Sciences in Action. How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1987).
For France, see, for example, Olivier Roubieu, “Le modèle du ‘manager.’ L’imposition d’une figure légitime parmi les hauts fonctionnaires des collectivités locales,” Politix, 28 (1994): 35–48;
Albert Ogien and Sandra Laugier, Pourquoi désobéir en démocratie? (Paris: La Découverte, 2010).
This appears clearly in the research carried out by Rolf Torstendahl, Bureaucratisation in Northwestern Europe, 1880–1985. Domination and Governance (London: Routledge, 1991).
Marc Exworthy and Susan Halford (eds.), Professionals and the New Managerialism in the Public Sector (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1999);
Frédéric Pierru, Hippocrate malade de ses réformes (Bellecombe-en-Bauges: Éditions du Croquant, 2007);
Nicolas Belorgey, L’Hôpital sous pression. Enquête sur le ‘nouveau management public’ (Paris: La Découverte, 2010);
Françoise Acker, “Sortir de l’invisibilité. Le cas du travail infirmier,” in Bernard Conein and Laurent Thévenot (eds.), Cognition et information en société (Paris: Éditions de l’EHESS, 1997), pp. 65–94.
Alain Trautman, “De la bureaucratisation de la recherche,” Société politiques comparées, no. 12 (February 2009), published online at http://fasopo.org/revue_archive?page=5 (accessed on February 16, 2015); Don Brenneis, “Reforming Promise” in A. Riles (ed.), Documents. Artefacts of Modem Knowledge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), pp. 41–70;
D. Warwick, Bureaucracy (London: Longman, 1974);
Cris Shore and Susan Wright, “Coercive Accountability. The Rise of Audit Culture in Higher Education,” in M. Strathern (ed.), Audit Cultures. Anthropological Studies in Accounting, Ethics and the Academy (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 57–89.
Stephen Kalberg, Max Weber’s Comparative-Historical Sociology (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), pp. 95–6 and (for the quotation) p. 120. See, of course,
Max Weber, Economy and Society. An Outline of Interpretative Sociology, (Berkeley: University of Chicago Press, 1978), especially pp. 932ff and pp. l000ff and Lefort, “Qu’est-ce que la bureaucratie?” pp. 277ff
Marilyn Strathern, “Bullet-Proofing. A Tale from the United Kingdom,” in A. Riles (ed.), Documents. Artefacts of Modern Knowledge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), pp. 181–205;
Michel Callon, Pierre Lascoumes, and Yannick Barthe, Acting in an Uncertain World: An Essay on Technical Democracy, trans. Graham Bunchell (Cambridge, MA; London: The MIT Press, 2009);
Daniel Benamouzig and Julien Besançon, “Administrer un monde incertain. Les nouvelles bureaucraties techniques. Le cas des agences sanitaires en France,” Sociologie du travail, 47 (2005): 301–22;
François Buton, “De l’expertise scientifique à l’intelligence épidémiologique. L’activité de veille sanitaire,” Genèse, 65 (December 2006): 71–91;
Yannick Barthe, Le Pouvoir d’indécision. La mise en politique des déchets nucléaires (Paris: Economica, 2006).
Michel Sennelart, Les Arts de gouverner. Du regimen médiéval au concept de gouvernement (Paris: Le Seuil, 1995).
Nicolas Grandguillaume, “La demande de contrôle,” Revue administrative, 318 (November–December 2000): 641–51.
Power, The Audit Society and Michael Power, The Risk Management of Everything. Rethinking the Politics of Uncertainty (London: Demos, 2004).
Latour, Sciences in Action; Callon (ed.), The Laws of the Market; Marie Benedetto-Meyer, Salvatore Maugeri, and Jean-Luc Metzger, “Introduction,” in Marie Benedetto-Meyer, Salvatore Maugeri, and Jean-Luc Metzger (eds.), L’Emprise de la gestion. La société au risque des violences gestionnaires (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2011), pp. 10–38.
Dan Clawson, Bureaucracy and the Labour Process. The Ttransformation of US Industry, 1860–1920 (New York; London: Monthly Review Press, 1955).
The case of home help is analyzed by Meg Luxton, “Doing Neoliberalism. Perverse Individualism in Personal Life,” in S. Bradley and M. Luxton (eds.), Neoliberalism and Everyday Life (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2010), pp. 163–83, in regard to Canada; for the case of consumption, see Kate Soper and Frank Trentmann (eds.), Citizenship and Consumption (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008).
Marilyn Strathern, After Nature. English Kinship in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
Michel Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitks. Lectures at the Collège de France, 1978–9, ed. Michel Senellart; trans. Graham Burchell (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) and The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981); Jean-François Bayart, Global Subjects: A Political Critique of Globalization, trans. Andrew Brown (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007).
For the cases of lawyers, doctors, and psychiatrists, see D. Fassin, Humanitarian Reason: A Moral History of the Present Times, trans. Rachel Gomme (Berkeley; London: University of California Press, 2012); S. Taliani and Roberto Beneduce, contributions to the second European conference of the FASOPO on February 6, 2009 (www.fasopop.org/reasopo.htm#rencontres) on neoliberal bureaucratization; for the case of teaching and research, see
Marilyn Strathern (ed.), Audit Cultures. Anthropological Studies in Accounting, Ethics and the Academy (London: Routledge, 2000) and “Bullet-Proofing”; Brenneis, “Reforming Promise”;
Isabelle Bruno, A vos marques … cherchez! La stratégie européenne de Lisbonne, vers un marché de la recherche (Bellecombe-en-Bauges: Éditions du Croquant, 2008).
Henry Jacoby, The Bureaucratization of the World, trans. Eveline L. Kanes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973; first published in German, 1969).
Herbert Marcuse, “Some Social Implications of Modern Technology,” in A. Arato and E. Gebhardt (eds.), The Essential Frankfurt School Reader (London: Continuum, 1982), pp. 138–62.
Paul Veyne, Did the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? An Essay on the Constitutive Imagination, trans. Paula Wissing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001);
Jean Gadrey and Florence Jany-Catrice, Les Nouveaux indicateurs de richesse (Paris: La Découverte, 2007);
Dominique Méda, Au-delà du PIB. Pour une autre mesure de la richesse (Paris: Flammarion, 2008).
Tim Bartley, “Certification as a Mode of Social Regulation,” Jerusalem Papers in Regulation and Governance, Working Paper no. 8, May 2010; Laurent Thévenot, “Un gouvernement par les normes. Pratiques et politiques des formats d’information,” in B. Conein and L. Thévenot (eds.), Cognition et information en société (Paris: Éditions de l’EHESS, 1997), pp. 204–42;
Marilyn Strathern, “Afterwords. Accountability … and Ethnography,” in M. Strathern (ed.), Audit Cultures. Anthropological Studies in Accounting, Ethics and the Academy (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 279–304.
Michele Micheletti, “The Moral Force of Consumption and Capitalism” in K. Soper and F. Trentmann (eds.), Citizenship and Consumption (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 121–36;
Franck Cochoy, “La responsabilité sociale de l’entreprise comme ‘représentation’ de l’économie et du droit,” Droit et Société, 65 (2007): 91–101; Bartley, “Certification as a Mode of Social Regulation”; Strathern (ed.), The Audit Cultures.
These discussions have emerged from a part of Economy and Society that has not been translated into French (I used here the English version). I learned of this passage and realized its importance thanks to my reading of the article by Michel Dobry, “Légitimité et calcul rationnel. Remarques sur quelques ‘complications’ de la sociologie de Max Weber,” in Pierre Favre, Jack Hayward, and Yves Schemeil (eds.), Etre gouverné. Etudes en l’honneur de Jean Leca (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2003), pp. 127–47.
Béatrice Hibou, Anatomie politique de la domination (Paris: La Découverte, 2011).
This is shown, in a quite different conceptualizing of the situation, by works as different as Martha Lampland and Susan Leigh Star (eds.), Standards and Their Stories. How Quantifying, Classifying and Formalizing Practices Shape Everyday Life (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2009); Thévenot, “Un gouvernement par les normes”; Arthur Stinchcombe, When Formality Works. Authority and Abstraction in Law and Organizations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
Henry Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy. Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900–1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985).
Bartley, “Certification as a Mode of Social Regulation”; Murphy and Yates, The International Organization for Standardization; Jean-Christophe Gräz, “Les hybrides de la mondialisation. Acteurs, objets et espaces de l’économie politique internationale,” Revue Française de science politique, 56 (5) (2006): 765–87;
François-Xavier Dudouet, Delphine Mercier, and Antoine Vion, “Politiques internationales de normalisation,” Revue française de science politique, 56 (3) (June 2006): 367–92.
Murphy and Yates, The International Organization for Standardization; Marilyn Strathern, “Introduction. New Accountabilities. Anthropological Studies in Audit, Ethics and the Academy,” in M. Strathern (ed.), Audit Cultures. Anthropological Studies in Accounting, Ethics and the Academy (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 1–18.
Jean-François Bayart describes bureaucracy in Africa as a “social movement”: see Jean-François Bayart, “Civil Society in Africa,” in Patrick Chabal (ed.), Political Domination in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 109–25, and “La revanche des sociétés africaines,” Politique africaine, 11 (September 1983): 95–127.
Stefan Timmermans and Steven Epstein, “A World of Standards but not a Standard World. Towards a Sociology of Standards and Standardization,” Annual Rreview of Sociology, 36 (2010): 69–89, demonstrate this in the case of standards.
Alvin Gouldner, Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy (London: Routledge, 1955).
Jean-François Bayart, S. Ellis, and Béatrice Hibou, The Criminalisation of the State in Africa (London: Hurst, 1998); Vallée, La Police morale de l’anticorruption.
Daniele Bourcier, “Le plaisir de la recherche, c’est toujours de tomber sur quelque chose d’inattendu,” CAES du CNRS, Le Magazine, 97 (2011): 4–7.
Boris Samuel, “Trajectoire technocratique et instabilité démocratique en Mauritanie. 2003–2011,” Les Etudes du CERI, no. 178 (September 2011) and “Les cadres stratégiques de lutte contre la pauvreté et les trajectoires de la planification au Burkina Faso,” Sociétés politiques comparées no. 16 (June 2009), published online at http://fasopo.org/revue_archive?page=4 (accessed on February 16, 2015).
Andrew Barry, Political Machines. Governing a Technological Society (London: The Athlone Press, 2001); Lampland and Star (eds.), Standards and Their Stories.
Strathern, After Nature; Herbert Marcuse, One Dimensional Man (London: Abacus, 1972); Ogien and Laugier, Pourquoi désobéir en démocratie?
Cris Shore and Susan Wright (eds.), Anthropology of Policy. Critical Perspectives on Governance and Power (London: Routledge, 1997).
Pentland and Ruter, quoted by Alexander Styhre in The Innovative Bureaucracy. Bureaucracy in an Age of Fluidity (London; New York: Routledge, 2007), p. 188.
Pierre Macherey, De Canguilhem à Foucault. La Force des normes (Paris: La Fabrique, 2009); quotations taken respectively from p. 131, p. 10, and p. 131.
Mario Biagioli, “Documents of Documents. Scientists’ Names and Scientific Claims,” in Annelise Riles (ed.), Documents. Artefacts of Modern Knowledge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), pp. 127–57.
Shown for the IMP by Richard Harper, Inside the IMF. An Ethnography of Documents, Technology and Organisational Action (San Diego: Academic Press, 1998).
Michel Capron, “Introduction. Les enjeux de la mise en oeuvre des normes comptables internationales,” in Michel Capron (ed.), Les Normes comptables internationales, instruments du capitalisme financier (Paris: La Découverte, 2005), pp. 5–26, p. 12, and p.13. See also
Ian Griffiths, Creative Accounting. How to Make Your Profits What You Want Them to Be (London: Routledge, 1992); Yannick Lermarchand and Nicolas Praquin, “Falsifications et manipulations comptables. La mesure du profit, un enjeu social (1856–1914),” Comptabilité-Contrôle-Audit (July 2005): 15–33.
On the possibilities for playing with and negotiating quantitative indicators, for new public management in Prance, see S. Trosa, Vers un management postbureaucratique. La réforme de l’Etat, une réforme de la société (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2006) and
C. Eyraud, Le capitalisme au coeur de l’Etat. Comptabilité privée et action publique (Bellecombes-en-Bauges: Editions du Croquant, 2013). For new public management as imposed by donors on receiver countries through management by results, see Harper, Inside the IMF;
Olivier Vallée, Pouvoirs et politiques en Afrique (Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1999);
Béatrice Hibou, “International Financial Institutions. The World Bank,” in Peter Schraeder (ed.), Making the World Safe for Democracy? The International Dimension of Democracy Promotion (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002), pp. 173–91 and “Les marges de manoeuvre d’un ‘bon élève’ économique: la Tunisie de Ben Ali,” Les Etudes du CERI, 60 (December 1999) (http://www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/sites/sciencespo.fr.ceri/files/etude60.pdf); Samuel, “Les cadres stratégiques” and “Calcul macroéconomique.”
www.sauvonslarecherche.fr; www.appeldesappels.org; L’Appel des Appels, Politique des métiers. Le manifeste (Paris: Mille et une nuits, 2011); chercheurs sans frontière (researchers without borders); study day “Lost in evaluation” at the Sorbonne, June 9, 2012. Jean-François Bayart, Sortir du national-libéralisme. Croquis politiques des années 2008–2012 (Paris: Karthala, 2012)
Olivier-P. Gosselain, “Slow Science. La désexcellence,” Uzance, 1 (2011): 128–40; on the ambiguity of the Slow Pood movement, see
Michela Badii, Processus de patrimonialisation et politiques de la tradition alimentaire dans le valdarno arêtin contemporain, Doctoral Thesis in social anthropology, University of Siena and École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, June 18, 2008 (accessible on the FASOPO site: www.fasopop.org/reasopo/jr/these_badii.pdf).
Pat Armstrong, “Neoliberalism in Action. Canadian Perspective,” in S. Bradley and M. Luxton (eds.), Neoliberalism and Everyday Life (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2010), pp. 184–201; Belorgey, L’Hôpital sous pression; Pierru, Hippocrate malade de ses réformes.
Laurent Thévenot, “L’autorité à l’épreuve de la critique. Jusqu’aux oppressions du ‘gouvernement par l’objectif,” in B. Frère (ed.), Quel présent pour la critique sociale? (Brussels: Desclée de Brouwer, 2012).
This is shown by Françoise Dreyfus in the case of state bureaucracy: I am here extending it, I hope without misusing her ideas, to bureaucracy in general: Françoise Dreyfus, L’Invention de la bureaucratie. Servir l’Etat en France, en Grande-Bretagne et aux Etats-Unis (XVIIIe–XXe siècle) (Paris: La Découverte, 2000), p. 14 and p. 19.
I am here, of course, referring to the terms of the book on France written by a collective of statisticians and researchers; it adopts this intentionalist and somewhat Manichean thesis: Lorraine Data, Le Grand Truquage. Comment le gouvernement manipule les statistiques (Paris: La Découverte, 2009).
This is shown by Martha Lampland in another context, that of socialist countries, in Martha Lampland, “False Numbers as Formalizing Practices,” Social Studies of Sciences, 40 (3) (2010): 377–404.
Michel Aglietta and Antoine Rebérioux, Corporate Governance Adrift: A Critique of Shareholder Value (Cheltenham; Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 2005).
Béatrice Hibou, “La Grèce dans l’Europe. Le révélateur budgétaire,” CEMOTI, 23 (October 1997): 315–29 and “Greece and Portugal,” in Simon Bulmer and Christian Lequesne (eds.), The Member States of the European Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 229–53.
Michel Aglietta, Zone euro. Eclatement ou fédération (Paris: Michalon, 2011);
A. Orléan, L’Empire de la valeur. Refonder l’économie (Paris: Le Seuil, 2011).
Béatrice Hibou, “L’historicité de la construction européenne. Le secteur bancaire en Grèce et au Portugal,” Les Etudes du CERI, 85–6 (April 2002) (http://www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/sites/sciencespo.fr.ceri/files/etude85.pdf); “L’intégration européenne du Portugal et de la Grèce. Le rôle des marges,” in S. Mappa (ed.), La Coopération internationale face au libéralisme (Paris: Karthala, 2003), pp. 87–134; François Bafoil and Béatrice Hibou, “Les administrations publiques et les modes de gouvernement à l’épreuve de l’européanisation. Une comparaison Europe du Sud, Europe de l’Est,” Les Études du CERI, 102 (December 2003) (http://www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/sites/sciencespo.fr.ceri/files/etudel02.pdf) and “Greece and Portugal.”
European Commission, Livre vert relatif à la lutte contre la contrefaçon (Brussels, 1998);
European Commission, Smuggling, Counterfeiting and Piracy. The Rising Tide of Contraband and Organized Crime in Europe (Brussels, January 2001, available at www.reacteu.org);
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French Ministry of Finance, Le plan d’action 2003–2004 du Comité national anti-contrefaçon, Notes bleues de Bercy, Paris, 2003;
Jean-Luc Zecri, “Les contrefaçons: un fléau financier à l’échelle mondiale,” Humanisme et entreprise, 284 (October 2007): 54–92; Pierre Delval, “Faux-semblants et vrais crimes: risques majeurs pour les consommateurs,” Politique internationale, 124 supplément “Contrefaçon, fraude alimentaire et contrebande: les fléaux du XXIe siècle,” (summer 2009): 45–64.
I have developed this analysis gradually, over a certain number of years, based on very disparate cases, and I have recently brought it together in Béatrice Hibou, “Economic Crime and Neoliberal Modes of Government,” Journal of Social History, 45 (3) (2012): 642–60.
Jane Guyer, Marginal Gains. Monetary Transactions in Atlantic Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004).
Philippe Minard, La Fortune du colbertisme. Etat et industrie dans la France des Lumières (Paris: Fayard, 1998);
Carlo Poni, “Mode et innovation. Stratégies des marchands en soie de Lyon, XVIIIe siècle,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, 45 (July–September 1998): 589–625; Delval, “Faux-semblants et vrais crimes.”
Salvatore Casillo, “L’irresistibile ascesa dell’industria del falso in Italia,” Il Mulino, 378, year XLVII (July–August, 1998), pp. 696–710; Guyer, Marginal Gains.
Michel Péraldi, “Économies criminelles et mondes des affaires à Tanger,” Cultures et Conflits, 68 (Winter 2007): 111–25;
H. Meddeb, Courir ou mourir. El khobza et la domination au quotidien sous la dictature de Ben Ali, Doctoral Thesis, Institut d’études politiques de Paris, October 5, 2012 (http://www.fasopo.org/reasopo/jr/th_meddeb.pdf).
Béatrice Hibou, “The ‘Social Capital’ of the State as an Agent of Deception: Or the Rules of Economic Intelligence” in Jean-François Bayart, S. D. K Ellis, and Béatrice Hibou, The Criminalization of the State in Africa (Oxford: James Currey and Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), pp. 69–113;
Maria-Luisa Cesoni, Développement du Mezzogiorno et criminalités. La consolidation économique des réseaux camorristes, Doctoral Thesis, Paris, EHESS, 1995.
Douglas R. Holmes and George E. Marcus, “Culture of Expertise and the Management of Globalization,” in Aihwa Ong and Stephen Collier (eds.), Global Assemblages. Technology, Politics and Ethics as Anthropological Problems (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp. 235–52;
D. MacKenzie, An Engine, Not a Camera. How Financial Models Shape Markets (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006);
Alan Greenspan, The Age of Turbulence. Adventures in a New World (New York: Penguin Press, 2007); special issue of L’Économie politique (29, 2006/1) on the record of Alan Greenspan, emphasising the pragmatism of the president of the Fed. For a synthesis of studies that highlights the importance of personal relations, knowledge, and the subjective dimension along with the norms of the market, see
Caroline Dufy and Florence Weber, L’Ethnographie économique (Paris: La Découverte, 2007).
François Fourquet, Les Comptes de la puissance. Histoire de la comptabilité nationale et du plan (Paris: Éditions Encres, 1980), p. 372.
Robert Brown, “Bureaucracy. The Utility of a Concept,” in R. Brown, E. Kamenka, M. Krygier, and A. Erh-Soontay (eds.), Bureaucracy. The Career of a Concept (London: Edward Arnold, 1979), p. 150.
Armstrong, “Neoliberalism in Action”; Luxton, “Doing Neoliberalism”; M. Thomas, “Neoliberalism, Racialization, and the Regulation of Employment Standards,” in S. Bradley and Meg Luxton (eds.), Neoliberalism and Everyday Life (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2010), pp. 68–89;
M. A. Dujarier, Le Travail du consommateur. De McDo à Ebay: comment nous coproduisons ce que nous achetons (Paris: La Découverte, 2008).
See the Italian press from the end of April 2012, for example, http://roma.repubblica.it/cronaca/2012/04/27/news/non_sei_mia_ti_tolgo_il_cognome_dopo_38_anni_il_padre_cancella_la_figlia-34030706/117. Laurent Thévenot, “Governing Life by Standards. A View from Engagements,” Social Studies of Science, 39/5 (October 2009): 793–813.
R. T. Naylor, Wages of Crime. Black Markets, Illegal Finance and the Underworld Economy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002);
Ronen Palan, The Offshore World. Sovereign Markets, Virtual Places, and Nomad Millionaires (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003);
Christian Chavagneux and Ronen Palan, Les Paradis fiscaux (Paris: La Découverte, 2006);
Thierry Godefroy and Pierre Lascoumes, Le capitalisme clandestin. L’illusoire régulation des places offshore (Paris: La Découverte, 2004);
Carolyn Nordstrom, Global Outlaws. Crime, Money, and Power in the Contemporary World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007);
Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing, Friction. An Ethnography of Global Connection (Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2005);
Michel Péraldi (ed.), Cabas et containers. Activités marchandes informelles et réseaux migrants transfrontaliers (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2001);
Michel Péraldi, “Laloi des réseauxm,” Panoramiques, 65 (October–December 2003): 100–112.
For this interpretation, see, for example, Dennis Conway, “Globalization of Labor. Increasing Complexity, More Unruly,” in D. Conway and N. Heynen (eds.), Globalization’s Contradictions. Geographies of Discipline, Destruction and Transformation (New York: Routledge, 2006), pp. 79–94 and
C. Allen, “Unruly Spaces. Globalization and Transnational Criminal Economics,” in Dennis Conway and Nik Heynen (eds.), Globalization’s Contradictions. Geographies of Discipline, Destruction and Transformation (New York: Routledge, 2006).
Julia Elyachar, Markets of Dispossession. NGOs, Economic Development, and the State in Cairo (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005);
Irène Bono, “Activisme associatif comme marché du travail à El Hajeb. Normalisation sociale et politique parles ‘activités génératrices de revenus,’” Politique africaine, 120 (December 2010): 25–44.
Elizabeth Dunn, “Standards and Person-Making in East Central Europe,” in A. Ong and S. J. Collier (eds.), Global Assemblages. Technology, Politics and Ethics as Anthropological Problems (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp. 173–93.
Andrew Lakoff “The Private Life of Numbers. Pharmaceutical Marketing in Post-Welfare Argentina,” in Aihwa Ong and Stephen Collier (eds.), Global Assemblages. Technology, Politics and Ethics as Anthropological Problems (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp. 194–213.
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Hibou, B. (2015). Struggles and Breaches: Bureaucratization as the Site of Enunciation of the Political. In: The Bureaucratization of the World in the Neoliberal Era. The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137495280_6
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