Conclusions

Abstract

This chapter summarizes the study’s findings that the application of deterrence theory to the cyber realm is problematic. It reiterates the recommended efforts in three specific areas to aid the deterrence of major cyber attacks — both in the non-material and balance of power realms: first, cultivating beneficial norms for strategic stability; second, continuing efforts in the area of improving cyber forensics and defenses, including regarding lower evidentiary standards for attributing cyber attacks and addressing harboring ‘independent’ attackers; and finally, developing and communicating a clear declaratory policy and credible options for deterrence-in-kind so as to make escalation unavoidable and costly.