Abstract
The previous chapters have explored the State-centric nexus of arms control and disarmament treaties and agreements, relevant international law and other regulatory regimes that are potentially applicable to ICA weapons, RCAs and related means of delivery. It is clear from such analysis that many of these instruments and regimes have ambiguities, weaknesses and limitations which the relevant Member States have been unable or unwilling to address. Furthermore, a number suffer from inadequate and patchy national implementation and a failure of States Parties and relevant regime organizations to challenge reported treaty violations by certain Member States.
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Notes
Bohn, L. Rand Corporation Memorandum, 1956, as cited in Rotblat, J. Societal Verification, in Rotblat, J., Steinberger, J. and Udgaonkar, B. (eds), A Nuclear-Weapon-Free World: Desirable? Feasible? Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993.
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For further discussion see Crowley, M. and Persbo, A. The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in the Monitoring and Verification of International Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements, in Borrie, J. and Martin Randin, V. (eds), Thinking Outside the Box in Multilateral Disarmament and Arms Control Negotiations. Geneva: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), 2006, pp. 225–252.
For further examples see (Bosnia) — Hay, A. Surviving the Impossible: The Long March from Srebrenica. An Investigation of the Possible Use of Chemical Warfare Agents, Medicine, Conflict and Survival, volume 14, number 2, 1998, pp. 38–73; (Kurdistan/Iraq) — Physicians for Human Rights, Iraq: Winds of Death: Iraq’s Use of Poison Gas Against Its Kurdish Population. Report of a mission to Turkish Kurdistan. February 1989; Physicians for Human Rights/Human Rights Watch statement, Scientific First: Soil Samples Taken from Bomb Craters in Northern Iraq Reveal Nerve Gas — Even Four Years Later, 29th April 1993, Physicians for Human Rights press release; Physicians for Human Rights, Iraq: PHR Documentation of Chemical Weapons Attacks against Kurds by Hussein Regime’s Anfal Campaign, 24th August 2006; the Middle East Watch, Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds, 1993; Black R. J., Clarke, R. W. and Reid, M. T. J. Application of Gas Chromatography — Mass Spectrometry and Gas Chromatography — Tandem Mass Spectrometry to the Analysis of Chemical Warfare Samples, Found to Contain Residues of the Nerve Agent Sarin, Sulphur Mustard and Their Degradation Products, Journal of Chromatography, A 662, 1994, pp. 301–321, as cited in Perry Robinson, J. Scientists and Chemical Weapons Policies, in Finney, J. and Slaus, I (eds), Assessing the Threat of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press, 2010, p. 81.
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Royal Society, Science Policy Centre, Brain Waves Module 3, Neuroscience, Conflict and Security, London, February 2012, p. 22.
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For a discussion of such initiatives, see Rappert, B. The Benefits, Risks, and Threats of Biotechnology, Science & Public Policy, volume 35, number 1, 2008, pp. 37–44.
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Rappert, B. (2010) op.cit., p. 8. Rappert cited the UK Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, the UK Medical Research Council, the Wellcome Trust, the Center for Disease Control, and the Southeast Center of Regional Excellence for Emerging Infectious Diseases and Biodefence.
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Ibid.
See Pearson, G., Becker, E. and Sydnes, L. Why Codes of Conduct Matter, Chemistry International, volume 33, number 6, November–December 2011, pp. 7–11. See also IUPAC, Statement by Prof. Alastair W. M. Hay and Prof. Graham S. Pearson on Behalf of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry to the Meeting of Experts, BTWC Meeting of Experts, 2008.
Rappert, B. Biological Weapons and the Life Sciences: The Potential for Professional Codes, in Disarmament Forum, 2005 volume one, Science Technology and the CBW regimes, Geneva: UNIDIR, 2005, pp. 53–62.
See, for example, Bell, C. Pledge by Neuroscientists to Refuse to Participate in the Application of Neuroscience to Violations of Basic Human Rights or International Law, 2010, available at http://spreadsheets.google.com/viewform?formkey=dEF4RFhhSWZwNktCakYtbTdkd1cxckE6MA (accessed 14th July 2015); Bell, C. Neurons for Peace: Take the Pledge, Brain Scientists, New Scientist, Magazine issue 2746, 8th February 2010; Bell. C. Why Neuroscientists Should Take the Pledge: A Collective Approach to the Misuse of Neuroscience, in Giodarno, J. (ed.), Neurotechnology in National Security and Defense: Practical Considerations, Neuroethical Concerns. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2014, pp. 227–238.
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Rappert, B. (2010) op.cit., p. 14.
Trapp, R. OPCW Activities and Perspectives on the Content, Promulgations, and Adoption of Codes of Conduct for Scientists, Third Meeting of the States Parties of the Biological Weapons Convention, Meeting of Experts, Geneva, 13th–24th June 2005, p. 5.
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Dando, M. Biologists Napping While Work Militarized, Nature, volume 460, issue 7258, 2009, p. 951. Dando’s concerns are echoed in an accompanying Nature editorial entitled: A Question of Control: Scientists Must Address the Ethics of Using Neuro-Active Compounds to Quash Domestic Crises.
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See, for example: Maclean, A. Historical Survey of the Porton Down Volunteer Programme, Part 4: Human Studies with Incapacitating Agents, London: Ministry of Defence, June 2006, pp. 109–142; Ketchum, J. S. Chemical Warfare: Secrets Almost Forgotten, self-published, 2006; Gould, C. and Folb, P. Project Coast: Apartheid’s Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme, UNIDIR, 2002.
See, for example: Hess, L. et al. (May 2005) op.cit.
Gross, M. Medicalized Weapons and Modern War, Hastings Center Report 40, number 1, 2010, pp. 34–35.
For example, the US Army textbook of military ethics has urged medical professionals “to stay in the business of healing and not hurting, which includes not participating in or contributing to weapons research and development”. Frisina, M. E. Medical Ethics in Military Biomedical Research, in Beam, T. E. and Sparacino, L. R. (eds), Military Medical Ethics, volume 2, Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General/Borden Institute, 2003, pp. 533–361, as cited in Gross, M. (2010) op.cit., p. 37.
See, for example: World Medical Association, Declaration of Helsinki, Adopted by the 18th WMA General Assembly, Helsinki, Finland, June 1964 and last amended at the 59th WMA General Assembly, Seoul, October 2008; Nuremberg Code, as detailed in Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10, volume 2, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949, pp. 181–182.
Nathanson, V. Ethical Issues for Health Professionals, in Incapacitating Chemical Agents: Implications for International Law, ICRC, Expert meeting, Montreux, Switzerland, 24–26th March 2010, pp. 29–30.
British Medical Association, The Use of Drugs as Weapons: The Concerns and Responsibilities of Healthcare Professionals, London: BMA, 2007.
British Medical Association (2007) op.cit., p. 20.
Ibid., p. 24.
Deiseroth, D. (2000) op.cit., p. 266.
Dando. M., Pearson. G., Rozsa. L., Robinson. J. and Wheelis, M. Analysis and Implications, in Wheelis, M., Rozsa, L. and Dando, M. (eds), Deadly Cultures, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006, p. 373.
Perry Robinson, J. P. Scientists and Chemical Weapons Policies, in Finney, J. and Slaus, I. (eds), Assessing the Threat of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press, 2010, p. 89.
Ruppe, D., CWC: Red Cross Says It Was Muzzled Over Stand on Incapacitating Weapons, Global Security Newswire, 30th April 2003.
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Crowley, M. (2016). The Role of Civil Society in Combating the Misuse of Incapacitating Chemical Agents and Riot Control Agents. In: Chemical Control. Global Issues Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137467140_12
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