Abstract
Indian doctors working in Kenya (formerly East Africa Protectorate) under British rule have been almost entirely written out of the history books. This research gap seems to have passed unremarked by historians of the region, despite various books focussing on the Colonial Medical Service, missionary doctors or the history of Africans entering western medical education.2 Yet to miss Indian doctors distorts our understanding of the medical history of colonial East Africa—not only in terms of describing the way it imported ideas, medicines, and personnel from the subcontinent—but also by failing to describe a large, diverse and vibrant cross section of the medical community.
The Empire is not white or English-speaking or Anglo-Saxon or British or Christian. It embraces many complexions, many languages, many races, many continents, many religions.1
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Notes
Anna Crozier, Practising Colonial Medicine: the Colonial Medical Service in East Africa, London, I.B. Tauris, 2007;
Ann Beck, A History of the British Medical Administration of East Africa, 1900–1950, Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press, 1970;
David Hardiman (ed.), Healing Bodies, Saving Souls: Medical Missions in Asia and Africa, London, Rodopi, 2006;
Megan Vaughan, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1991;
John Iliffe, East African Doctors: A History of the Modern Profession, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998.
M. Reda Bhacker, Trade and Empire in Muscat and Zanzibar: The Roots of British Domination, London, Routledge, 1992, p. 11.
Anonymous, ‘Espionage: Indian Publicly Executed’, The Leader, Nairobi, 13 November 1915, p. 16; R.L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1976, p. 6.
But interestingly all the studies of middle level healthcare workers have been of black Africans. See, for example, Anne Digby, ‘The Mid-Level Health Worker in South Africa: The In-Between Condition of the “Middle”’, in Ryan Johnson and Amna Khalid (eds), Public Health in the British Empire: Intermediaries, Subordinates, and the Practice of Public Health, New York & London, Routledge, 2012, pp. 171–92;
See also the discussion in Marku Hokkanen, Medicine and Scottish Missionaries in the Northern Malawi Region, 1875–1930, Lampeter, Edwin Mellen Press, 2007, pp. 412–20.
Adeloya Adeloye, African Pioneers of Modern Medicine: Nigerian Doctors of the Nineteenth Century, Ibadan, University Press Limited, 1985;
Adell Patton, Physicians, Colonial Racism and Diaspora in West Africa, Gainesville, University of Florida Press, 1996;
Iliffe, East African Doctors, Cambridge University Press, 1998;
Anne Digby, ‘Early Black Doctors in South Africa’, Journal o f African History, 46, 2005, pp. 427–54.
The tendency to oversimplify and romanticise the subaltern has been pointed out by: Sumit Sarkar, ‘The Decline of the Subaltern in Subaltern Studies’ in Sumit Sarkar (ed.), Writing Social History, 88, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 82–108.
John Lonsdale, ‘Kenya: Home Country and African Frontier’ in Robert Bickers (ed.), Settlers and Expatriates: Britons over the Seas, Oxford University Press, 2014 [First published, 2010], pp. 74–111, p. 86.
Nancy Rose Hunt, A Colonial Lexicon of Birth, Ritual, Medicalization, and Mobility in the Congo, Durham. N.C., Duke University Press, 1999, p. 23 quoted in Digby, ‘The Mid-Level Health Worker’, pp. 171–92.
For example the origins of Indirect Rule can be found in British India. See Michael H. Fisher, ‘Indirect Rule in the British Empire: The Foundations of the Residency System in India (1764–1858)’, Modern Asian Studies, 18.3, 1984, pp. 393–428.
Daniel R. Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, 1981.
Robert J. Blythe, The Empire of the Raj: India, Eastern Africa and the Middle East, 1858–1947, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
See for example on Tanzania: James R. Brennan, TAIFA: Making Nation and Race in Urban Tanzania, Athens, Ohio University Press, 2012;
Ronald R. Aminzade, Jack A. Gladstone, Doug McAdam, Elizabeth J. Perry, William Sewell, Jr., Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001;
Ned Bertz, ‘Educating the Nation: Race and Nationalism in Tanzanian Schools’ in Sara Dorman, Daniel Hammett, and Paul Nugent (eds), Making Nations, Creating Strangers: States and Citizenship in Africa, Leiden, Brill, 2007, pp. 161–80.
The authors wish to thank Professor Frederick Cooper, NYU, for his incisive comments on a related paper delivered by Anna Greenwood at University of Nottingham, Ningbo China on 17 May 2014. These comments, and the discussion after, offered valuable insights into redefining ideas of colonial power and its operation. John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2009;
John Darwin, Unfinished Empire: the Global Expansion of Britain, London, Penguin, 2013.
J.R. Gregory, Under the Sun (A Memoir of Dr R.W. Burkitt of Kenya), Nairobi, English Press, 1951.
For Africa see particularly: Michael Gelfand, Tropical Victory: An Account of the Influence of Medicine on the History of Southern Rhodesia, 1890–1923, Cape Town, Juta, 1953;
Philip Manson-Bahr, History of the School of Tropical Medicine in London: 1899–1949, London, HK Lewis & Co. Ltd., 1956;
Aldo Castellani, Microbes, Men and Monarchs: A Doctor’s Life in Many Lands, London, Gollancz, 1960;
Ralph Schram, A History of the Nigerian Health Services, Ibadan, Ibadan University Press, 1971;
J.J. McKelvey Jr., Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa, London, Cornell University Press, 1973;
Michael Gelfand, A Service to the Sick: A History of the Health Services for Africans in Southern Rhodesia, 1890–1953, Gweru, Mambo Press, 1976.
For one of the first books to famously argue for the intentional exploitation of Africa by British colonials see: Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, London, Bogle-L’Ouverture and Tanzanian Publishing House, 1972.
Headrick, Tools of Empire; Roy Macleod and Milton Lewis (eds), Disease Medicine and Empire, London, Routledge, 1988; Vaughan, Curing Their Ills.
Colonial History became particularly influenced by the ideas of bio power elucidated by Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality Volume 1: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley, New York, Pantheon, 1978 [French publication: 1976]. Issues remained debated, however.
See: Hussein Abdilahi Bulhan, Frantz Fanon and the Psychology of Oppression, New York, London, Plenum, 1985.
Randall Packard, White Plague, Black Labor: Tuberculosis and the Political Economy of Health and Disease in South Africa, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1989;
John Farley, Bilharzia: A History of Imperial Tropical Medicine, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008 [first published 1991]; Maryinez Lyons, The Colonial Disease: A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire 1900–1940, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002 [first published, 1992]; Mark Harrison, Public Health in British India: Anglo Indian Preventative Medicine, 1859–1914, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Ranajit Guha, ‘The Small Voices of History’ in Shahid Amin and Dipesh Chakrabarty (eds), Subaltern Studies: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Vol. IX, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1988.
Alan Lester, Imperial Networks: Creating Identities in Nineteenth-Century South Africa and Britain, London, Routledge, 2001;
Alan Lester, ‘Imperial Circuits and Networks: Geographies of the British Empire’, History Compass, 4, 2006, pp. 124–41; Zoe Laidlaw, Colonial Connections 1815–1845; Patronage, the Information Revolution and Colonial Government, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2005; T.M. Metcalf, Imperial Connections: India in the Indian Ocean Arena, 1860–1920, Berkeley and London, University of California Press, 2007; Simon J. Potter, ‘Webs, Networks and Systems: Globalization and the Mass Media in the Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century British Empire’, Journal of British Studies, 46, 2007, pp. 621–46; Brett M. Bennett and Joseph M. Hodge (eds), Science and Empire: Knowledge and Networks of Science Across the British Empire, 1800–1970, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011; Deborah J. Neill, Networks in Tropical Medicine: Internationalism, Colonialism, and the Rise of a Medical Specialty, 1890–1930, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2012.
David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth Century India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993.
Anne Digby and Helen Sweet, ‘The Nurse as Culture Broker in Twentieth Century South Africa’ in Waltraud Ernst (ed.), Plural Medicine, Tradition and Modernity, London, Routledge, 2002, pp. 113–29;
Philip D. Morgan and Sean Hawkins (eds), Black Experience and the Empire, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004; Benjamin N. Lawrance, Emily Lynn Osborn, and Richard L Roberts (eds), Intermediaries, Interpreters, and Clerks: African Employees in the Making of Colonial Africa, Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006; Anne-Marie Rafferty, ‘The Rise and Demise of the Colonial Nursing Service: British Nurses in the Colonies, 1896–1966’, Nursing History Review, 15, 2007, pp. 147–54; Johnson and Khalid, Public Health in the British Empire, 2012.
Douglas Haynes, Imperial Medicine: Patrick Manson and the Conquest of Tropical Disease, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.
Dane Kennedy and Durba Ghosh (eds), Decentring Empire: Britain, India, and the Transcolonial World, Hyderabad, Longman Orient Press, 2006;
Kevin Grant, Philippa Levine, and Frank Trentmann (eds), Beyond Sovereignty, 1880–1950: Britain, Empire and Transnationalism, London, Palgrave, 2007;
Pratik Chakrabarti, Medicine and Empire, 1600–1960, London, Palgrave MacMillan, 2013.
Projit Mukharji, Nationalizing the Body: The Market, Print and Healing in Colonial Bengal, 1860–1930, London, Anthem Press, 2009.
Ernst, Plural Medicine; Pratik Chakrabarti, Western Science in Modern India: Metropolitan Methods, Colonial Practices, Delhi, Permanent Black, 2004;
Sanjoy Bhattacharya, Mark Harrison, and Michael Worboys (eds), Fractured States: Smallpox, Public Health and Vaccination Policy in British India, 1800–1947, New Delhi, Orient Longman and Sangam Books, 2005;
Anne Digby, Diversity and Division in Medicine: Healthcare in South Africa from the 1800s, Oxford, Peter Lang, 2006;
Guy Attewell, Refiguring Unani Tibb: Plural Healing in Late Colonial India, New Delhi, Orient Longman, 2007;
Biswamoy Pati and Mark Harrison (eds), The Social History of Health and Medicine in Colonial India, London and New York, Routledge, 2009;
Hormoz Ebrahimnejad (ed.), The Development of Modern Medicine in Non-Western Countries: Historical Perspectives, London and New York, Routledge, 2009.
Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context, New York, Routledge, 1995;
Karen Jochelson, The Colour of Disease: Syphilis and Racism in South Africa, 1880–1950, Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2001;
Philippa Levine, Prostitution, Race and Politics: Policing Venereal Disease in the British Empire, London, Routledge, 2003; Mary P. Sutphen and Bridie Andrews (eds), Medicine and the Colonial Identity, London, Routledge, 2003; Warwick Anderson, Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race and Hygiene in the Philippines, Durham, Duke University Press, 2006.
Roger Jeffery, ‘Recognizing India’s Doctors: The Institutionalization of Medical Dependency, 1918–1939’, Modern Asian Studies, 13.2, 1979, pp. 301–26; Roger Jeffery, ‘Doctors and Congress: The Role of Medical Men and Medical Politics in Indian Nationalism’ in Mike Shepperdson and Colin Simmons (eds), The Indian National Congress and the Political Economy of India, 1885–1985, Aldershot, Brookfield, USA, Avebury, 1988, pp. 160–73.
Deepak Kumar, ‘Racial Discrimination and Science in Nineteenth Century India’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 19, 1982, pp. 63–82.
Karen Blixen, Out of Africa, London, Putnam & Co. Ltd, 1937;
Isak Dinensen, Letters from Africa, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981;
Elspeth Huxley, The Sorcers’s Apprentice: A Journey Through East Africa, London, Chatto and Windus, 1949;
Elspeth Huxley, Out in the Midday Sun: My Kenya, London, Chatto and Windus, 1958; Elspeth Huxley, The Flame Trees of Thika: Memoirs of An African Childhood, London, Chatto and Windus, 1959; Elspeth Huxley, Pioneers’ Scrapbook: Reminiscences of Kenya, 1890 to 1968, London, Evan Brothers Ltd.,1980.
Elspeth Huxley, White Man’s Country: Lord Delamere and The Making of Kenya, London, Chatto and Windus, 1935. For a more critical perspective, see also Margery Perham, Race and Politics in Kenya: A Correspondence Between Elspeth Huxley and Margery Perham, London, Faber and Faber, 1944. For the prevalent view of Huxley’s work see C. S. Nicolls, Elspeth Huxley: A Biography, London, Harper & Collins, 2007. Critiques of Husley came however. See Peter Worsley, ‘The Anatomy of Mau Mau’, The New Reasoner, 1, 1957, pp. 13–25; Chloe Campbell, Race and Empire: Eugenics in Colonial Kenya, Manchester University Press, 2007, p. 1.
Bethwell Allan Ogot, History of the Southern Luo: Volume I, Migration and Settlement, 1500–1900, Nairobi, East African Publishing House, 1967;
Bethwell Allan Ogot (ed.), Politics and Nationalism in Kenya, Nairobi, East African Publishing House, 1972;
Bethwell Allan Ogot and J.A. Kieran (eds), Zamani: A Survey of East African History, Nairobi, East African Publishing House, 1968; Bethwell Allan Ogot, My Footprints on the Sands of Time: An Autobiography, Victoria BC, Trafford Publishing, 2006. See also Ali Mazuri, ‘European Exploration and African Self Discovery’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 4, 1969, pp. 661–76.
M.N. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders: The Swahili Coast India and Portugal in the Early Modern Era, Baltimore, The John Hopkins University Press, 1998, p. 17;
Particularly illustrative is the debate between Ogot and Oliver, see Kelly Boyd (ed.), Encyclopedia of Historians And Historical Writing, Vol. 2, London and Chicago, Fitzroy & Dearborn, 1999, p. 881.
Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa, London, Nairobi, Athens, J. Currey, Heinemann Kenya, Ohio University Press, 1992. David Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire, London, Weidenfield & Nicolson, 2005; See also Dane Kennedy, ‘Constructing the Colonial Myth of Mau Mau’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 25.2, 1992, pp. 241–60.
Mamdani discusses the role of Indian troops ‘as a means of coercion in a colony.’ M. Mamdani, From Citizen to Refugee: Uganda Asians Come to Britain, London, Francis Pinter Ltd., 1973, p. 14.
Gregory, Under the Sun; Margaret Trowell, African Tapestry, London, Faber and Faber, 1957;
John A. Carman, A Medial History of the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya: A Personal Memoir, London, Rex Collings, 1976. Wellcome Library (thereafter WL)/CMAC/PP/HCT/A5 Elizabeth Bray, Hugh Trowell: Pioneer Nutritionist, unpublished biography and tape transcripts, London, 1988; Rhodes House Library, Oxford (thereafter RHL)/MSS.Brit.Emp.r.4 Peter Alphonsus Clearkin, Ramblings and Recollections of a Colonial Doctor 1913–1958, Book I, Durban, 1967; RHL/MSS.Afr.s.1653 Theodore Farnworth Anderson, Reminiscences by T. Farnworth Anderson, Book I, Limuru, Kenya, 1973; RHL/MSS.Afr.s.702 Robert Arthur Welsford Procter, ‘Random Reminiscences, Mainly Surgical’, [n.d.] medical historical articles: Arthur Dawson Milne, ‘The Rise of the Colonial Medical Service’, Kenya and East African Medical Journal, 5, 1928–1929, pp. 50–8; H.A. Bödeker, ‘Some Sidelights on Early Medical History in East Africa’, The East African Medical Journal, 12, 1935–6, pp. 100–7; John Langton Gilks, ‘The Medical Department and the Health Organization in Kenya, 1909–1933’, The East African Medical Journal, 9, 1932–3, pp. 340–54; Clare Aveling Wiggins, ‘Early Days in British East Africa and Uganda’, The East African Medical Journal, 37, 1960, pp. 699–708; Clare Aveling Wiggins, ‘Early Days in British East Africa and Uganda: Second Tour—1904–1907’, The East African Medical Journal, 37, 1960, pp. 780–93.
Shula Marks, ‘What is Colonial about Colonial Medicine? And what has Happened to Imperialism and Health?’ Social History of Medicine, 10, 1997, pp. 205–19, p. 205.
Beck, History of the Medical Administration, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1970;
Ann Beck, Medicine, Tradition and Development in Kenya and Tanzania 1920–1970, Waltham, Mass: Crossroads Press, 1981.
Maureen Malowany, Medical Pluralism: Disease, Health and Healing in the Coast of Kenya, 1840–1940, Ph.D Thesis, McGill University, Canada, 1997, p. 133; Kenneth Ingram, ‘Medicine in East Africa’, The Journal of African History, 12, 1971, pp. 162–3; C.C. Wrigley, Book Review, The Journal o f African History, 26.4, 1985, pp. 44–2.
As well as her monograph see also Ann Beck, ‘Problems of British Medical Administration in East Africa between 1900–1930’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 36, 1962, pp. 275–83; Ann Beck, ‘Medical Administration and Medical Research in Developing Countries: Remarks on Their History in Colonial East Africa’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 46, 1972, pp. 349–58; Ann Beck, ‘The State and Medical Research: British Government Policy Toward Tropical Medicine in East Africa’, Proceedings of the XXIII International Congress of the History of Medicine, London, 2–9 September 1972, London, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1974, pp. 488–93.
Dane Kennedy, Islands of White: Settler Society and Culture in Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, 1890–1939, Durham, Duke University Press, 1990; Vaughan, Curing Their Ills, 1991.
Jock McCulloch, Colonial Psychiatry and ‘The African Mind’, Cambridge University Press, 1995; Iliffe, East African Doctors; George Odour Ndege, Health, State and Society in Kenya, Rochester, NY, University of Rochester Press, 2001; O.A. 011uumwallah, Disease in the Colonial State: Medicine, Society and Social Change Among the Aba Nyole of Western Kenya, Westport Connecticut, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002; Kirk Arden Hoppe, Sleeping Sickness Control in British East Africa, 1900–1960, Westport Connecticut, Praeger, 2003; Sloan Mahone, ‘The Psychology of Rebellion: Colonial Medical Responses to Dissent in British East Africa’, Journal of African History, 47.2, 2006, pp. 241–60.
Robert G. Gregory, South Asians in East Africa: An Economic And Social History 1890–1990, Oxford, Westview Press, 1993, pp. 217–27;
Cynthia Salvadori, We Came in Dhows, Nairobi, Paperchase Kenya Ltd, 1996, has material relating to Dr Dias (Vol I, p. 126); Dr Ribeiro (Vol. II, p. 22), Dr Bowry (Vol. III, p. 91), Dr de Sousa (Vol. III, p. 160), and Dr Bödeker (Vol. II, pp. 6–7).
Ralph Schram, Heroes of Healthcare in Africa, unpublished folio, Isle of White, 1997.
U.K. Oza, The Rift in the Empire’s Lute: Being a History of the Indian Struggle in Kenya, Bombay, Advocate of India Press, 1931;
W. Hollingsworth, The Asians of East Africa, London, Macmillan and Company Limited, 1960;
George Delf, Asians in East Africa, Oxford University Press, 1963; Robert G. Gregory, India and East Africa: A History of Race Relations within the British Empire, 1890–1939, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971; Christopher P. Youé, ‘The Threat of Settler Rebellion and the Imperial Predicament: The Denial of Indian Rights in Kenya, 1923’, Canadian Journal of History, 12, 1978, pp. 347–60; David Himbara, ‘The “Asian” Question in East Africa: The Continuing Controversy on the Role of Indian Capitalists in Accumulation and Development in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania’, African Studies, 56.1, 1997, pp. 1–18; Deborah L. Hughes, ‘Kenya, India and the British Empire Exhibition of 1924’, Race & Class, 47, 2006, pp. 66–85.
Dharam P. Ghai and Yash P. Ghai (eds), Portrait of a Minority: Asians In East Africa, Nairobi, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1970;
D.A. Seidenberg, Uhuru and the Kenya Indians: the Role of a Minority Community in Kenya Politics, 1939–1963, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House, 1983;
Christopher A. Bayly, Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988; Metcalf, Imperial Connections; Sana Aiyar, ‘Empire, Race and the Indians in Colonial Kenya’s Contested Public Political Sphere, 1919–1923’, Africa: The Journal of the International African Institute, 81.1, 2011, pp. 132–54; Neera Kapila, Race, Rail and Society: Roots of Modern Kenya, Nairobi, East African Educational Publishers, 2011; Brennan, TAIFA; Sana Aiyar, Indians in Kenya: The Politics of Diaspora, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, forthcoming, 2015.
M.G. Visram, Alidina Visram: The Trail Blazer, Mombasa, M.G. Visram Publisher, 1990;
Makrand Mehta, ‘Gujarati Business Communities in the East African Diaspora: Major Historical Trends’, Economic and Political Weekly, 36.20, 2001, pp. 1738–47; G. Oonk, Settled Strangers: Asian Business Elites in East Africa: 1800–2000, London, Sage Publications, 2013.
N.K. Mehta, Dream Half-Expressed: An Autobiography, Bombay, Vakils, Feffer, and Simons, [c.1966]; Paul Marett, M.P. Shah: His Life and Achievements, London, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1988.
Zarina Patel, Challenge to Colonialism: The Struggle of Alibhai Mulla Jeevanjee for Equal Rights in Kenya, Nairobi, Publisher Distribution Services, 1997;
Zarina Patel, Unquiet: The Life and Times of Makhan Singh, Nairobi, Zand Graphics, 2006; Zarina Patel, Manilal Ambalal Desai: The Stormy Petrel, Nairobi, Zand Graphics, 2010; J.M. Nazareth, Brown Man Black Country: A Peep into Kenya’s Freedom Struggle, New Delhi, Tidings Publications, 1981.
Agehananda Bharati, The Asians of East Africa: Jayhind And Uhuru, Chicago, Nelson Hall, 1972;
Vincent Cable, ‘The Asians of Kenya’, African Affairs, 68, 1969, pp. 218–31; Stephen Morris, ‘Indians in East Africa: A Study in a Plural Society’, The British Journal of Sociology, 7, 1956, pp. 194–211.
See particularly: M.G. Vassanji, The Book of Secrets, London, Picador, 1996;
Also: M.G. Vassanji, The Gunny Sack, Oxford, Heinemann International, 1989; M.G. Vassanji, No New Land, New Delhi, Penguin, 1992.
Randolph M.K. Joalahliae, The Indian as an Enemy: An Analysis of the Indian Question in East Africa, Bloomington, Authorhouse, 2010.
More recently, doctors and other professional Indian migrants are also over looked in John C. Hawley (ed.), India in Africa; Africa in India: Indian Ocean Cosmopolitanisms, Bloomington, IN, Indiana University Press, 2008.
Chanan Singh, ‘Later Asian Protest Movements’ in B.A. Ogot (ed.), Hadith 4: Politics and Nationalism in Colonial Kenya, Nairobi, East Africa Publishing House, 1972, p. 164.
K.V. Adalja, ‘Thirty Two Years in General Practice in Nairobi’, East African Medical Journal, 36, 1959, pp. 442–8;
See also K.V. Adaija, ‘The Development of Medical Service in Kenya’, East African Medical Journal, 39, 1962, pp. 105–14. S.D. Karve, ‘An Experiment in Midwifery’, East African Medical Journal, 10, 1933–4, pp. 358–63; S.D. Karve, ‘Some Indian Methods of Midwifery’, East African Medical Journal, 11, 1934–5, pp. 286–7.
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Greenwood, A., Topiwala, H. (2015). ‘The Empire is not white’: Indian Doctors in Kenya. In: Indian Doctors in Kenya, 1895–1940. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137440532_1
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