Abstract
Norway contributed significantly to the process that culminated in the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), signed in January 2005 by representatives of Sudan’s government (GOS) and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A). The agreement aimed to end the North-South civil war that began when Sudan become independent from Great Britain in 1956 and had continued, with only a few years’ hiatus, from 1972 to 1983.1 The first serious attempt to achieve a peace agreement occurred in the 1980s, ending in 1989 when a military coup established the fundamentalist National Islamic Front government under General Bashir. Having continued to the present, this government signed the CPA only after changed circumstances and a long, concerted, coordinated effort by all relevant international actors including the United States. This chapter describes the process.
The information in this chapter has been published previously by the author in “A Small State’s Multiple-level Approach to Peacemaking: Norway’s Role in Achieving Sudan’s Comprehensive Peace Agreement,” Civil Wars, 8, 3 (September–December 2006): 285–311.
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Notes
Quoted by Iver Neumann and Sieglinde Gstohl, Lilliputians in Gulliver’s World? Small States in International Relations (Reykjavik: Institute of International Affairs/University of Iceland, 2004), 17, available at www.hi.is/~smallst/Publication.htm. Accessed August 12, 2005.
Mahmoud Abbas, Through Secret Channels (Reading, UK: Garret Publishing, 1995), 113.
Jane Corbin, Gaza First—the Secret Norway Channel to Peace Between Israel and the PLO (London: Bloomsbury Publishing Limited, 1994), 39.
Jan Egeland, Impotent Superpower—Potent Small State—Potentials and Limitations of Human Rights Objectives in the Foreign Policies of the United States and Norway (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1988), 175.
William J. Durch, “Building on Sand: U.N. peacekeeping in the western Sa hara,” International Security 17/4 (1993): 169.
Eva Bertram, “Reinventing Governments: The Promise and Perils of United Nations Peace Building,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 39/3 (September 1995): 405.
Douglas H. Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan’s Civil Wars (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press 2004), 102.
Mary Anderson, “Extending the Humanitarian Mandate: Norwegian Church Aid’s Decision to Institutionalize its Commitment to Peace Work,” Reflecting on Peace Practice Project: Case Study (Cambridge, MA: Collaborative for Development Action, October 2000), 1.
Ann Kelleher and Larry Taulbee, “Building Peace Norwegian Style: Studies in Track I ½ Diplomacy” in Henry F. Carey and Oliver P. Richmond (eds.), Subcontracting Peace—the Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2005), 70.
John Prendergast, “Applying Concepts to Cases: Four African Case Studies’ in John Paul Lederach” Building Peace—Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute for Peace Press, 2002), 157, 154, 158.
J. Stephen Morrison and Alex de Waal, “Can Sudan Escape Its Intractability?” in Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall (eds.), Grasping the Nettle—Analyzing Cases of Intractable Conflict (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute for Peace Press, 2005), 179.
Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, Taming Intractable Conflicts (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute for Peace Press, 2004), 89–90.
Crocker, Osler, Aall, Taming Intractable Conflicts, 89; Andrew S. Natsios, “An NGO Perspective” in I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict—Methods and Techniques, (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997), 338–41; J. Lewis Rasmussen, “Peacemaking in the Twenty-first Century: New Rules, New Roles, New Actors,” in Zartman and Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict, 43;
Christopher Mitchell, “The Process and Stages of Mediation—Two Sudanese Cases,” in David R. Smock (ed.), Making War and Waging Peace—Foreign Intervention in Africa (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1993), 140.
Jacob Bercovitch, “International Mediation and Intractable Conflict,” available at http://www.beyondintractability.org/m/med_intractable_conflict.jsp (accessed June 3, 2005).
Jane Corbin, Gaza First: The Secret Norway Channel to Peace bet we en Israel and the PLO (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 1994).
Susanne Jonas, Of Centaurs and Doves—Guatemala’s Peace Process (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press 2000).
Jan Egeland, “The Oslo Accord—Multiparty Facilitation through the Norwegian Channel” in Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall (eds.), Herding Cats—Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2003), 538.
Ann Mosely Lesch, The Sudan—Contested National Identities (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press 1998), 157.
For an alternative interpretation, some commentary blames John Garang and the SPLA-affiliated local commanders for the south’s own civil war. “Under Garang’s leadership, the SPLA directed the war through a cadre in tight control of power” and used the legitimizing ideas of a secular, equalitarian, “New Sudan” identity that would unite all of the Sudan. A SPLA “reign of terror led to extensive, endless destruction of peoples and property.” (Julia Aker Duany, “South Sudan—People-to-People Peacemaking: A Local Solution to Local Problems” in Mary Ann Cejka and Thomas Bamat (eds.), Artisans of Peace — Grassroots Peacemaking among Christian Communities (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2003), 202, 204.
Khalid Medani, “Sudan’s Human and Political Crisis,” Current History 92/574 (May 1993): 203.
E.E. Evans-Pritchard, in The Nuer—A description of the modes of livelihood and political institutions of a Nilotic people (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1940) provided a classic explanation of mediation as a settlement process, particularly on pp.163–4 and 172–5. Feuds were generally settled by payments in livestock. Evans-Pritchard cited a common Nuer saying, “The feud has been cut behind, we have returned to kinship.” Also he noted that long-standing relationships help; “if there has been much intermarriage between two groups a feud is unlikely to develop.”
John Paul Lederach, Building Peace—Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997), 13, 15.
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© 2014 James Larry Taulbee, Ann Kelleher, and Peter C. Grosvenor
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Taulbee, J.L., Kelleher, A., Grosvenor, P.C. (2014). Parallel Peace Processes in Achieving Sudan’s CPA. In: Norway’s Peace Policy. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137429193_4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137429193_4
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