Abstract
All human progress is based upon the single notion of global culture that entails a different sense of identities, beliefs and realities. We all feel that a new order of civilization has taken form. We also dimly sense that this coming into being bears a significant weight in shaping our lives and formation of our cultural cognitions. Within an instant of evolutionary time, thousands of years of human endeavor began to converge into a single monolithic description that covers all human activity. This monolithic transformation would eventually oblige all of us to replace our ready-made garments of rites and traditions for the custom-made costumes of habits and thoughts, which in itself is indicative of an underlying dynamic that ultimately constitutes the basis of new patterns of norms and inclinations.1
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Notes and References
However, as this study argues the new enthusiasm that has formed on the wreckage of old ideolog only to become an adherent of the regnant orthodoxy of the day. What the prevailing culture has failed to comprehend, wrote Bell, ‘is that Orthodoxy is not the guardian of an existent order, but is itself a judgment on the adequacy and moral character of beliefs, from the stand point right reason. The paradox is that heterodoxy itself has become conformist in liberal circles, and exercises that conformity under the banner of an antinomian flag. It is a prescription, in its confusion, for the dissolution of a shared moral order.’ (See Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradiction of Capitalism, 20th Anniversary Edition, Basic Books, 1996, p. xxvii.)
Walter Truett Anderson, Reality Isn’t What It Used To Be, Harper and Row, 1990, p. 24.
Harold Rosenberg, The Tradition of The New, Da Capo Press, 1994, p. 10.
Cognitive awareness refers to the mental process of knowing, including aspects such as perception, reasoning and judgment.
Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Notes from Underground, translated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky, Vintage, 2011, pp. 7 and 8.
Walter Truett Anderson, 1990, p. 24.
Which reminds me of John Gray, who once wrote, ‘we have little idea of what the future will bring. We are forced to live as if we were free. The cult of choice reflects the fact that we must improvise our lives. That we cannot do otherwise is a mark of our unfreedom. Choice has become a fetish; but the mark of fetish is that it is unchosen’ (John Gray, Straw Dogs, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007, p. 110).
Perhaps that is the main reason why, as we have learned now, it stumbled and baffled to treat others whose moral values, aesthetic ideals, and religious convictions, are not shared by the promoters of such arrangement.
Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents, translated and edited by James Strachey, W. W. Norton, 1962, p. 26.
In the sense that such conversion can be explained both in terms of the imposition of hegemony and the attempt to dismantle the existing structure, as described by Kenneth Burke’s rhetorical theory. See Keith D. Miller, ‘Plymouth Rock Landed on Us: Malcolm X’s Whiteness Theory as a Basis for Alternative Literacy’, College Composition and Communication, December 2004, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 199–222.
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2305976/Margaret-Thatcher-quotes-Now-really-thing-society-says-RICHARD-LITTLEJOHN.html.
James M. Burns, Leadership, Harper Perennial, 2010, p. 249.
Ibid.
The psychological concept of anomie, according to Merton, has a definite referent, which refers to an identifiable state of mind, ‘as the crowded casebooks of psychiatrists attest’ (see Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, Free Press, 1968, p. 216).
R. M. MacIver, The Ramparts We Guard, Macmillan, 1950, pp. 84–85.
Hannah Arendt, Human Condition, University of Chicago Press, 1998, p. 7. The quote is related to her attempt to define plurality. She points out that plurality is the essence why ‘to live’ and ‘to be among men’ (inter homines esse) and ‘to die’ and ‘to cease to be among men’ (inter homines esse desi-nere) were synonymous for the Roman, as she writes, ‘plurality is one of the basic existential conditions of human life on earth — so that inter homines esse, to be among men, was to the Roman the sign of being alive, aware of the realness of world and self, and inter homines esse desinere. To cease to be among men, a synonym for dying-to be by myself and to have intercourse with myself is an outstanding characteristic of the life of the mind. The mind can be said to have a life of its own only to the extent that it actualizes this intercourse in which, existentially speaking, plurality is reduced to the duality already implied in the fact and the word “consciousness,” or syneidenai — to know with myself. I call this existential state in which I keep myself company “solitude” to distinguish it from “loneliness,” where I am also alone but now deserted not only by human company but also by the possible company of myself.’ See Hannah Arendt, 1978, p. 74.
Individualism and self-centeredness in the Greek ideal makes it impossible for Achilles, the hero of the Trojan War, to insist on a redress of his honor from Agamemnon even at an exorbitant cost to the whole Greek army, and to be honored for his stand by gods and men because, for the Greek, one’s own reputation and fame were the highest goods in life (see A Milton Encyclopedia, edited by William Bridges Hunter, Associated University Presses, 1978, p. 181). The Romans, on the other hand, looked at their hero somewhat differently. The state and ultimately the empire were too important to them to find untrammeled individualism the highest human good (ibid). Moreover, the writings of Dante, and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli, emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom and individual expression. In the essays of Montaigne the individualistic view of life received perhaps the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and philosophy. However, it should be noted that the cultivated notion of individualism was commonly perceived as a complementary element to the instinct of revolt against established ideals, as Michelle Lynn wrote, ‘the spirit of individualism to a certain degree incited the protestant revolt’ (see Michelle Lynn, Daniel 11: A History of the World, AuthorHouse, 2012, p. 150).
Quentin Anderson, ‘On the Middle of the Journey’, in Art, Politics and Will: Essays in Honor of Lionel Trilling, edited by Quentin Anderson, Stephen Donadio and Steven Marcus, Basic Books, 1977, p. 263.
Apparently, the situation with self-amusement has arrived at the point that psychology professor Joshua Foster has developed a standardized test called the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) to assess the adverse impact of private vanities. The NPI asks subjects to rate the accuracy of various narcissistic statements, such as ‘I can live my life any way I want to’ and ‘If I ruled the world, it would be a better place.’ According to Boston Globe, ‘Foster has given this personality test to a range of demographic groups around the world, and no group has scored higher than the American teenager. Narcissism also appears to be reaching new highs, even within the Entitlement Generation, among American college students (http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2007/09/30/the_new_me_generation/).
Sigmund Freud, 1962, p. 27.
Sally Mackenzie from the Mackenzie-Laboratory at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln reveals, plants ‘can have experiences during their lifetime that can actually change the proteins … make changes on the proteins that interact with the DNA in such a way that there can be a memory. And if a plant sees drought early in its lifetime and then adjusts from it and later sees drought a second time, it will be pre-adapted or already acclimated to that drought condition.’ See http://wuwm.com/post/reinventing-farming-changing-climate.
For instance, Tocqueville in Democracy in America underlines the threat that individualism imposed on society when he states, ‘individualism proceeds from erroneous judgment more than from depraved feelings; it originates as much in the deficiencies of the mind as in the perversity of the heart. Egotism blights the germ of all virtue; individualism, at first, only saps the virtues of public life; but, in the long run, it attacks and destroys all others, and is at length absorbed in downright egotism.’ See Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. II, Part 2, Chapter II: Of Individualism in Democratic Countries, translated by Henry Reeve and accessible at http://www.gutenberg.org/files/816/816-h/816-h.htm.
It is noteworthy that a lack of empathy is not related to psychological disorder. In the recent paper, ‘Who cares? Or: The Truth about Empathy in Individuals of the Autism Spectrum’, Isabel Dziobek concluded, ‘More generally speaking, our data shows that people with Asperger syndrome have a reduced ability to read other peoples’ social cues (such as facial expressions or body language) but once aware of another’s circumstances or feelings, they will have the same degree of compassion as anyone else.’ The emphasis is added. See GRASP website.
Max Horkheimer and Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment, edited by Gunzelin Schmid Noerr, translated by Edmund Jephcott, Stanford University Press, 2007, p. 124. According to Horkheimer and Adorno, ‘the source of today’s disaster is a pattern of blind domination, domination in a triple sense: the domination of nature by human beings, the domination of nature within human beings, and, in both of these forms of domination, the domination of some human beings by others. What motivates such triple domination is an irrational fear of the unknown: “Humans believe themselves free of fear when there is no longer anything unknown. This has determined the path of demythologization.. Enlightenment is mythical fear radicalized”. In an unfree society whose culture pursues so-called progress no matter what the cost, that which is “other,” whether human or nonhuman, gets shoved aside, exploited, or destroyed. The means of destruction may be more sophisticated in the modern West, and the exploitation may be less direct than outright slavery, but blind, fear-driven domination continues, with ever greater global consequences. The all-consuming engine driving this process is an ever-expanding capitalist economy, fed by scientific research and the latest technologies.’ See Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy at: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/adorno/#2.
For rich and comprehensive discussions on these topics the reader is referred to Susan McKinnon and Sydel Silverman (eds), Complexities: Beyond Nature and Nurture, University of Chicago Press, 2005.
For various works on the topic see: David R. Roskos-Ewoldsen, Beverly Roskos-Ewoldsen and Francesca R. Dillman Carpentier, ‘Media Priming; A Synthesis’, in Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann, Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, Routledge, 2002; Lars Willnat, ‘Agenda Setting and Priming: Conceptual Links and Differences’, in Maxwell E. McCombs, Donald L. Shaw and David H. Weave, Communication and Democracy: Exploring the Intellectual Frontiers in Agenda-setting Theory, Routledge, 1997; Zhongdang Pan and Gerald M. Kosicki, ‘Priming and Media Impact on the Evaluations of the President’s Performance’, Communication Research vol. 24, no. 1, 1997, pp. 3–30; Brad J. Bushman, ‘Priming effects of media violence on the accessibility of aggressive constructs in memory’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 24, 1998, pp. 537–45.
Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Cambridge University Press, 2004, Part I, Of the Propriety of Action, Sympathy, 1.1, p. 11.
Ibid.
Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and Human Brain, Quill, 2000, p. xvii.
Hannah Arendt, 1978, p. 96.
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_%28philosophy%29.
John Dewey, The Public and its Problems, Swallow Press; 1st edition, 1954, p. 148.
Harold Rosenberg, 1994, p. 10.
The reasons and explanations for such shortfall are many and beyond the scope of this book. However, there are some main causes that can be listed as follows: the appeal of intellectual, or professional detectors, among general crowds has been nullified for sometime now because of the impotency of intellectual groups to make a stand on issues that matter most to the public and also because intellectualism has become a profession with a logo that reads “detect to earn”; intellectuals’ nonchalant attitudes that regularly celebrate past triumphs by marching on self-important boulevard; the rise in perverted Darwinism and anti-intellectualism.
Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimension Man, Beacon Press, 1991, p. 79. Marcuse defined the notion of happy consciousness as ‘the belief that real is rational, and that the established system, in spite of everything, delivers the goods. The people are led to find in the productive apparatus the effective agent of thought and action to which their personal thought and action can and must be surrendered.’ Ibid.
John Kenneth Galbraith, American Capitalism: The Concept of Prevailing Power, Transaction Publishers, 1993, p. 96. Emphasis is added.
Stephen Eric Bronner, Critical Theory: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 77.
Wislawa Szymborska, ‘In Praise of Self-Deprecation’, 1976: The buzzard has nothing to fault himself with. Scruples are alien to the black panther. Piranhas do not doubt the rightness of their actions. The rattlesnake approves of himself without reservations. The self-critical jackal does not exist. The locust, alligator, trichina, horsefly live as they live and are glad of it. The killer-whale’s heart weighs one hundred kilos but in other respects it is light. There is nothing more animal-like than a clear conscience on the third planet of the Sun.
Hannah Arendt, The Life of the Mind: Thinking, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978, p. 6.
In its most general form, critical thinking denotes ‘the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness’ (see Michael Scriven and Richard Paul, The 8th Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform, Summer 1987, at: http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766).
If such ability has nothing to do with critical thinking, then Arendt observed, ‘we must be able to demand its exercise from every sane person, no matter how erudite or ignorant, intelligent or stupid, he may happen to be’ (see Hannah Arendt, The Life of the Mind, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978, p. 13).
Douglas Kelliner, ‘Introduction to the Second Edition’, in Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimension Man, Beacon Press, 1991, p. xiv.
From the Revolutionary Proclamation of the Junta Tuitiva, La Paz, July 16, 1809, that sits on the inside of the title page of the book by Eduardo Galeano, The Open Veins of Latin America; Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent, Monthly Review Press, 1997.
Quentin Anderson, 1977, p. 264.
See http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/2d.htm.
See Plato, Apology (38a) at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?do c=plat.+apol.+38a&redirect=true. See also Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. 1; Euthyphro; Apology; Crito; Phaedo; Phaedrus, translated by Harold North Fowler; Introduction by W.R.M. Lamb, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1966. Full text is available in English and Greek at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=plat.+phaedo+57a&redirect=true.
In recent memory, the notion of a conformist mindset was popularized by Solomon Asch. In the 1950s, Asch conducted and published a series of laboratory experiments that demonstrated that not only will people typically go along with what they know to be wrong in a group, even though they know the majority is wrong, but that some of them will actually come to believe that what is wrong is right. Thus Asch proved psychologically that conformity could be influenced by both a need to ‘fit in’ and a belief that other people are ‘smarter or better informed’ even though this belief is untested.
The reader should also note that there are those who defend a conformist mindset and underline advantages of such mental states. Scholars like Guo Xiang and Wang Lian-ming of Tongju University, Shanghai, go to great lengths in defending the conformist mentality and the positive role it plays in the work of management and propagation (see Guo Xiang and Wang Lian-ming, ‘The Application of Conformist Mentality in the Construction and Management in Libraries and in High Institutions’, Journal of Academic Library and Information Science, February 2010). The authors generally imply that this is not simply a de facto phenomenon but a natural one as well, where machine-like individuals allow states to operate at maximum efficiency.
Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacles, Black & Red, 1983, p. 29.
Hannah Arendt, 1978, p. 100.
David Levithan, The Realm of Possibility, Alfred A. Knopf, 2006, p. 198.
Walter Truett Anderson, 1990, p. 12.
Another character, Rosalind, however revels, ‘Why then, can one desire too much of a good thing?’
See for instance, Robert Zubrin, The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must, Free Press, 2011; T. R. Meyer and C. P. Mckay, ‘The Resources of Mars for Human Settlement’, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 1989, vol. 42, pp. 147–60; Robert Zubrin, ‘The Case of Colonizing Mars’, National Space Society, 1996; Mochael D. West and Jonathan Clark, ‘Potential martian mineral resources: Mechanism and terrestrial analogues’, Planetary and Space Science, 2009, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 574–82; and http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/mars-minerals.
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2013//20130412_arcticseaice.html.
The disconnected ecosystem basically implies that oceans and mountain ranges cut off different ecosystems from each other, and the response of a given region is likely to be strongly influenced by local circumstances. For instance, if someone burns a tree in the Amazon, the CO2 level in the atmosphere rises, which then raises temperatures worldwide, but the fate of Malaysian rainforests depends more on what’s happening locally than those global effects of Amazonian deforestation (see Barry W. Brooksend, Erle C. Ellis, Michael P. Perring, Anson W. Mackay and Linus Blomqvist, ‘Does the terrestrial biosphere have planetary tipping points?’, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, February 28, 2013).
http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/reportcard/sea_ice.html.
http://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/2012/11/venice-under-water/100403/.
http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/news/Maldives_going_under_water:_new_look_at_a_doomsday_story/1047972631.
This is odd and contrary to the principle of the culture that is proud of its rational attributes and the civilization whose main pillars are built on rationality and rational thinking. The contradiction appears at the action-reaction paradigm of rationality — the third of Newton’s laws of motion of classical mechanics states that forces always occur in pairs. This is related to the fact that a force results from the interaction of two objects. Every force (‘action’) on one object is accompanied by a ‘reaction’ on another, of equal magnitude but opposite direction.
Iraq used to be an old friend of West, then fell into temporary foe, and is now placed in an undecided category indefinitely. Afghanistan used to be nowhere to be found until she was invaded by the Red Army, who was driven out by Western backed bearded freedom fighters, who ruled the country as if we were back in the inquisition times endorsed by one of the major resource-based economies (and the major oil supplier of the West), which then has spun out of control, invaded and governed by the democratically elected government headed by the man who received, by his admission, bags full of cash to restore the rule of law.
If one believes the common notion that democracy implies respect for others’ rights, then invading a sovereign nation to implement democracy is pure absurdity.
The United States alone lost 5,200 men and 50,000 wounded, while no one knows for sure the number of casualties and wounded in Iraq and Afghanistan, but if we average out accounts published by various agencies at both national and international level, the numbers are 2 million killed and more than 5 million wounded and still counting. On the financial aspect of these wars, the US spent, on a most crude base that disregards other incurring costs, i.e., hospitalization, long-term care services, physical therapies, physiological wounds, etc., close to 1.5 trillion dollars on establishing democracy both in Iraq and Afghanistan, the aim that by all accounts is still pending after 13 years. (See http://www.economonitor.com/dolanecon/2013/03/18/ten-years-on-new-estimates-of-the-economic-cost-of-the-wars-in-iraq-and-afghanistan-2/). The reader should also note that the population of both countries added up to approximately 68 million, which implies the US alone spent 20,000 dollars for each individual in these countries (four times higher than a household average medium income in Iraq and for Afghanistan is not published) to reach where we are now. For 2012 global review of conflicts see: http://www.upworthy.com/map-the-unbelievable-number-of-people-without-a-home-to-go-back-to.
In various regions of the world they are viewed by different labels that insinuate different connotations. For instance, European Central Bank (ECB) portrayed as group of highly skill monetarist, while in United States some operates under lobbyist brand while other function as think thank and still significant portion work among academia.
Both have served at the International Monetary Fund. Reinhart was a chief economist at investment bank Bear Stearns in the 1980s, while Rogoff worked at the Federal Reserve, passing through Yale and MIT before landing at Harvard.
Massaging data is another notion for manipulation and alteration process, in which you fit the reality into your conceptual framework, a practice so common in most quantification procedures and analyses. Search for “massaging data” on Google and you have closer to 3 million results.
Ernst Bloch, The Utopian Function of Art and Literature: Selected Essays, translated by Jack Zipes and Frank Mecklenberg, MIT Press, 1989, p. 1.
Ibid., p. 7.
Ibid., p. 12.
It should be noted that the term denial has many different connotations depending on the context. Standard dictionaries cite various definitions of the word, i.e., ‘disbelief in the existence or reality of things’. There are also diverse colloquial uses, including ‘self-denial’ or ‘in-denial’ in addition to different insinuations in Freudian psychology. However, the term used in this study denotes the basic definition derived from psychology: An unconscious [induced consciousness] mechanism used to reduce anxiety by denying thoughts, feelings, or facts that are consciously intolerable. This is akin to ignoring or not taking note of something that is important. It should be noted that the term ignoring implies a deliberate process, which is not necessarily applied in this study. The term inattention might be substituted. All in all, there is no perfect term to describe the human induced propensity in this book. The phrases denial of reality or reality denial come as close as any. The term induced is used because denial of reality is perceived, in this study, as a direct result of narratives that are disseminated by cultural institutions, in particular mass media and prints.
For instance, what these institutions should do, instead, is encourage the public to attain thinking critically, to maintain genuine skepticism and critique systems of power and culture and political assumption, to ask the broad question of meaning and eloquence once cherished by the humanities. The interested reader is invited to read an excellent writing by Thomas Jones called ‘How can we live with it’, in London Review of Book, vol. 35, no.20.23, May 23. It is accessible at: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v35/n10/thomas-jones/how-can-we-live-with-it.
Jacques Ellul, Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes, Vintage Books, 1973, p. 85.
In The Reality of the Mass Media, Niklas Luhmann points out, ‘The programme strand of news and in-depth reporting is most clearly recognizable as involving the production/processing of information. In this strand the mass media disseminate ignorance in the form of facts which must continually be renewed so that no one notices. We are used to daily news, but we should be aware nonetheless of the evolutionary improbability of such an assumption. If it is the idea of surprise, of something new, interesting and newsworthy which we associate with news, then it would seem much more sensible not to report it in the same format every day, but to wait for something to happen and then to publicize it.’ (See Niklas Luhmann, The Reality of the Mass Media, translated by Kathleen Cross, Stanford University Press, 2000, p. 25.)
Dick Hebdige in his book Subculture: The Meaning of Style alluded to such a notion and observed, ‘ideology, by definition thrives beneath consciousness. It is here at the level of normal common sense, that ideology frameworks of reference are most firmly sedimented and most effective. Because it is here that their ideological nature is most effectively concealed.’ See Dick Hebdige, Subculture: The Meaning of Style, Routledge, New Ed edition, 1979, p. 11, (emphasis in the original).
In this light, such information should be regarded, by definition, a commodity since its use turns to advantage (benefit), which insinuates the staple notion in various fields and disciplines known as commodification of information.
For instance see Damian Thompson, Fix, Collins, 2012. See also the author interview at: http://www.marketplace.org/topics/life/big-book/addiction-might-be-click-closer-you-think.
The used of the word plantation intends to underline peculiarities of the global system, such as: (1) At least 80 percent of humanity lives on less than $10 a day; (2) The poorest 40 percent of the world’s population accounts for 5 percent of global income. The richest 20 percent accounts for three-quarters of world income; (3) 22,000 children die each day due to poverty; (4) Nearly a billion people entered the 21st century unable to read a book or sign their names; (5) 1 billion out of 2.2 billion children in the world live in absolute poverty, and the list goes on (see http://www.globalissues.org/article/26/poverty-facts-and-stats). However, and based on oral history of plantations, the present conditions are far more severe than a century ago (see Louie B Nunn Center for Oral History; Plantations Oral History Project, University of Kentucky Libraries at: http://www.kentuckyoralhistory.org/series/18798/plantations-oral-history-project.).
For an illuminating discussion of the culture of mass society see Hannah Arendt, ‘The Crisis in Culture: Its Social and Its Political Significance’, in Judgment, Imagination, and Politics: Themes from Kant to Arendt, edited by Ronald Steven Beiner and Jennifer Nedelsky, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2001.
Edward Shils, ‘Mass Media and Its Culture’, in Mass Media in Modern Society, edited by Norman Jacobs, Transaction Publishers, 1992, p. 60.
In the sense of how Brecht draws his insights from the culture of mass society. Oesmann observed that Brecht’s starting point for theatrical dialectics is the shattering of the person (Zertrummerung der person), which he considers the historical destruction of bourgeoisie subjectivity from its enlargement to its smallest size and actual expendability within the whole. The effect, for Breach, is liberating because it denies the subject its fictional control of history, a denial he seeks to replicate in his concept of epic theatre. See Astrid Oesmann, Staging History: Brecht’s Social Concepts of Reality, State University of New York Press, 2005, p. 25.
Alan Dawe, ‘Theories of Social Action’, in Tom Bottomore and Robert Nisbet (eds), A History of Sociological Analysis, Basic Books, 1978, p. 364.
For a critic of this view see Keith Windschuttle, ‘Cultural Studies versus Journalism’, Quadrant, March 1999 also published as ‘Journalism versus Cultural Studies’, Australian Studies in Journalism, no 7, 1998.
Graeme Turner, ‘Media Texts and Messages’, in Stuart Cunningham and Graeme Turner (eds), The Media in Australia: Industries, Texts, Audiences, 2nd edition, 1997, Allen and Unwin, p. 311.
In a similar fashion an ideology, therefore, is transmitted by communication signals lodged in people’s unconscious in a sense that the dominant ideology or culture prescribes the whole way of life necessary for the individual to accept his place in the social formation. It is here, as this study maintains, that the mass media and prints take on the role agent of inducement, not only draw upon dominant ideologies, but in doing so sustain them through perpetual dissemination of information.
Jean Baudrillard, ‘The Precession of Simulacra’, in Joseph Natoli and Linda Hutcheon, (eds), A Postmodern Reader, SUNY Press, 1993, p. 347.
Jean Baudrillard, The Gulf War Did Not Take Place, Indiana University Press, 1995, p. 61.
Ibid., p. 68.
Since Iraq, of course, the criticism of administration policy has been widespread, including a host of books (e.g. Michael Isikoff and David Corn, Hubris: The Inside Story of Spin, Scandal, and the Selling of the Iraq War, Blackstone Audiobook, 2006). But that critical scrutiny was most needed before major decisions were made and the public enlisted.
The sentiment is shared by significant literature on the topic. For instance see Dennis Chong and James N. Druckman, ‘Framing Theory’, Annual Review of Political Science, 2007, vol. 10, pp. 103–26; Thomas E. Nelson and Zoe M. Oxley, ‘Framing Effects on Belief Importance and Opinion’, Journal of Politics, 1999, vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 1040–67; Dennis Chong, ‘Creating Common Frames of References on Political Issues’, in Diana C. Mutz, Paul M. Sniderman and Richard A. Brody (eds), Political Persuasion and Attitude Change, University of Michigan Press, 1996; Thomas E. Nelson, Zoe M. Oxley and Rosalee A. Clawson, ‘Toward A Psychology of Framing Effects’, Political Behavior, vol. 19, no. 3, 1997; and Karen S. Johnson-Cartee, News Narratives and News Framing: Constructing Political Reality, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2004.
However, when such a process occurs in the public sphere, often its neglect means that vital and most relevant perspectives are ignored. This point has been underlined by Michael Heazle and Iyanatul Islam who points out that the comment by Prince Saud Al-Faisal, Foreign Minister of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for the last 30 years and son of the late king Faisal, in which he outlines his opinion of Iraq war by stating, ‘There is no dynamic now pulling the nation together.all the dynamic are pulling the country apart,’ has been totally neglected by mass media and popular prints in the US. According to Heazle and Islam, ‘Prince Saud went on to say that he was in Washington to carry this message “to anyone who will listen” in the Bush Administration’ (see Michael Heazle and Iyanatul Islam, Beyond The Iraq War: The Promises, Pitfalls and Perils of External Interventionism, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006, pp. xi).
To observe how the public act and react toward these devices see Pew Research Center, ‘Public Attitudes Toward the War in Iraq: 2003–2008’ at: http://www.pewresearch.org/2008/03/19/public-attitudes-toward-the-war-in-iraq-20032008/; New York Times/CBS News Poll at: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/25/washington/25view.html. See also Ole R. Holsti, American Public Opinion on the Iraq War, in which Holsti explores the extent to which changes in public opinion reflected the vigorous public relations via media efforts of the Bush administration to gain support for the war and the partisanship marking debates over policies toward Iraq. Holsti investigates the ways in which the Iraq experience has led substantial numbers of Americans to reconsider their nation’s proper international role, and he assesses the impact that public opinion has had on policymakers. Holsti’s key judgment was that ‘survey data apparently played little role in policy decisions [italics by the author] but they helped shape how issues were framed in what was a relentless effort to gain public support for the administration’s policies on Iraq’ (p. 132). For more information on the book see http://www.press.umich.edu/1039750/american_public_opinion_on_the_iraq_war.
http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/terror.
See p. 86 in Seth C. Lewis and Stephen D. Reese, ‘What is the war on terror? Framing through the eyes of journalists’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, vol. 86, no. 1, 2009, pp. 85–102.
http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/.
Shanto Iyengar, Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues, University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 11.
Television news is routinely reported in the form of specific events or particular cases — Iyengar calls this ‘episodic’ news framing — as distinct from ‘thematic’ coverage which places political issues and events in some general context. ‘Episodic framing’, he says, ‘depicts concrete events that illustrate issues, while thematic framing presents collective or general evidence. Visually, episodic reports make good pictures, while thematic reports feature talking heads.’ (Ibid. p. 14.)
William Safire, ‘Saddam and Terror’, NY Times, August 22, 2002. Can be accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/22/opinion/saddam-and-terror.html.
William Safire, ‘Found; A Smoking Gun’, NY Times, February 11, 2004. It can be accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/11/opinion/found-a-smoking-gun.html. The reader should note Safire’s use of the term ‘smoking gun’ which is commonly a reference to an object or fact that serves as conclusive evidence of a crime. This is no accident since in 2003, Safire wrote in his column an explanation of the term (see William Safire, ‘On Language: The Way We Live Now’, The New York Times, January 26, 2003).
See http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/09/world/the-struggle-for-iraq-intelligence-us-says-files-seek-qaeda-aid-in-iraq-conflict.html?pagewanted= all&src=pm.
In short, not only does the document fail to establish a prewar connection between Saddam Hussein and world terrorism, but it also suggests that current links between Iraqi insurgents and Al Qaeda may be rather weak and provisional.
These declarations, according to David Corn of Nation magazine, are completely false and misleading. Corn wrote, ‘As for the first, there was no mass murder occurring at the time of the invasion. In a January 2004 report, Human Rights Watch noted that Hussein’s mass killings had mainly occurred in 1988, during an anti-Kurd genocide, and in 1991, when Hussein suppressed the post-Gulf War uprisings that President George H.W. Bush had encouraged but not supported. ‘Brutal as Saddam Hussein’s reign had been,’ the report noted, ‘the scope of the Iraqi governments killing in March 2003 was not of the exceptional and dire magnitude that would justify humanitarian intervention…. [B]y the time of the March 2003 invasion, Saddam Hussein’s killing had ebbed.’ So Bush’s invasion had not stopped any genocidal massacres (see David Corn, ‘The Propaganda of William Safire’, Nation, February 24, 2004. Can be accessed at: http://www.thenation.com/blog/156073/propaganda-william-safire#axzz2Wyd1c5IO.
Donald Lewis Shaw and Maxwell E. McCombs, The Emergence of American Political Issues: The Agenda-Setting Function of the Press, West Pub. Co., 1977, p. 5.
Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition, University of Chicago Press, 1985. It should be noted that the term active used here does not refer to professional representation of people, but rather in the sense of debate, activity, the publishing of opinions, and the passing of judgments. Therefore, mass culture media is not the same as the public-generated media, in which individuals should express their opinion instead of journalists regularly publishing them on their behalf. In fact, the public-generated media can be traced back to Dewey’s project Thought News. According to Pajnik, ‘The utopian potential inherent in public-generated media stems from the public, understood as a public space in which citizens express their own opinions instead of their representatives doing so on the citizens’ behalf. Public-generated media do not seek legitimacy in representation, because they are not based on a representative system; neither are they based on a system of addressees because, if we follow Dewey, these are not audience-created media. Nor do they rely on the idea of possession, meaning that they are not public media or media from the public.’ See Mojca Pajnik, ‘The Utopia of Mass Media: Towards Public-generated Media’, Sociologija. Mintis ir Veiksmas, 2008, vol. 23, p. 102.
The reader should note that the idea about the public-generated media, according to which individuals should publish their opinions instead of journalists doing so on their behalf, can be traced in Dewey’s project Thought News. Public oriented media, as conceptualized by Dewey, are not public media, because they are not media for the public. The public is not separate from them in the way a subscriber is separate from a television or radio program, or a target reader or consumer from a newspaper. The utopian potential inherent in public-generated media stems from the public, understood as a public space in which citizens express their own opinions instead of their representatives doing so on the citizens’ behalf. Public-generated media do not seek legitimacy in representation, because they are not based on a representative system; neither are they based on a system of addressees because, if we follow Dewey, these are not audience-created media. Nor do they rely on the idea of possession, meaning that they are not public media or media from the public. Public-generated media, in the sense of a public space for activity, create the public, which in turn creates the media through its activity, i.e. by publishing citizens’ opinions.
More to the point, a mass media is an agent who observed events and is like most agents, in the sense that it is reporting what it observed or was given to observe.
Niklas Luhmann, The Reality of Mass Media, Kathleen Cross (translated), Stanford University Press, 2000, p. 4.
Brian McNair, ‘What is Journalism’, in Hugo de Burgh (ed.), Making Journalism: Diverse Model, Global Issues, Routledge, 2006, p. 25.
Ian Hargreaves, ‘The Ethical Boundaries of Reporting’, in Mike Ungersma (ed.), Reporters and the Reported: The 1999 Vauxhall Lectures, Cardiff: Centre for Journalism Studies, 1999, p. 4.
Jostien Gripsurd, ‘Tabloidization, Popular Journalism, and Democracy’, in Colin Sparks and John Tulloch (eds), Tabloid Tales, Rowman and Littlefield, 2000, p. 294.
Karin Wahl-Jorgensen and Thomas Hanitzsch, ‘Introduction: On Why and How We Should Do Journalism Studies, in Karin Wahl-Jorgensen and Thomas Hanitzsch (eds), The Handbook of Journalism Studies, Routledge, 2009, p. 3.
C. Campbell, The Romantic Ethic and The Spirit of Modern Consumerism, Polity, 1987; C. Campbell, ‘The Sociology of Consumption’, in D. Miller (ed.), Acknowledging Consumption: A Review of New Studies, Routledge, 1995, pp. 96–126.
According to Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur, the audience is dependent on the mass media to satisfy a variety of needs in today’s society, including: (1) to understand the world in which they live; (2) to function meaningfully and effectively in that social, political and economic arena; and (3) to escape the cares and travails of contemporary life through a presentation of fantasy and escape (see S. J. Ball-Rokeach and M. L. DeFleur, ‘A dependency model of mass media effects’, Communication Research, 1976, vol. 3, pp. 3–21).
Gaye Tuchman, ‘Telling Stories’, Journal of Communication, 1976, vol. 26, p. 97.
Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality, Free Press, 1978, p. 179. This urge derives mass news organizations to emphasize being the first outlet to carry the story, which manifests in forms of the ‘news flash’ and the ‘breaking news’. In practice, however, a significant portion of broadcast news is not ‘first time’, breaking news, nor is it exclusive to the broadcaster but rather is recycled narratives. In fact, it is easy to observe that the same contents are reported repetitiously but with different flirts.
Jürgen Habermas, ‘Political Communication in Media Society: Does Democracy Still Enjoy an Epistemic Dimension? The Impact of Normative Theory on Empirical Research’, Communication Theory, 2006, vol. 16, p. 415.
The 2004 documentary film ‘Control Room’ featured Al Jazeera journalists who argued that the toppling of Saddam’s statue was merely ‘a show … a very clever idea,’ and that Iraqis had been brought to the square like actors delivered to the stage. Skeptics have also questioned whether the crowd was as large or as representative of popular sentiment as US officials suggested (see Peter Maass, ‘How the media inflated a minor moment in a long war’, New Yorker Magazine, April 10, 2011.
Walter Lipmann, Public Opinion, Green Book Publication, 2010 (published first in 1922), p. 14.
Daniel J. Boorstin, The Image: A Guide To Pseudo-Events In America, Harper Colophon Books, 1961, p. 9.
Alexis de Tocqueville, translated by Henry Reeve, Democracy in America, Vol. II, 3rd edition, Sever and Francis, 1863, p. 393.
Carolyn Pumphrey and Atulio Echevarria II, Strategic Deception in Modern Democracies: Ethical, Legal, and Policy Challenges, 2003, p. 1.
Mary G. Dietz, ‘The Prince: Machiavelli and the Politics of Deception’, The American Political Science Review, vol. 80, no. 3, September 1986, pp. 777–99. The interested reader is referred to the following literatures: in international relations, see Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State, and War: A Theoretical Analysis, Columbia University Press, 1954 and Edward Vose Gulick, Europe’s Classical Balance of Power: A Case History of One of the Great Concepts of European Statecraft, Cornell University Press, 1955; in comparative politics, see William Bluhm, Theories of the Political System: Classics of Political Thought and Modem Political Analysis, Prentice-Hall, 1965; in organization theory, see Jeffrey Pfeffer, Power in Organizations, Pitman Press, 1981; and in political psychology, see Peter Nardulli, Roy Flemming and James Eisenstein, ‘Unraveling the Complexities of Decision Making in Face-to-Face-Groups: A Contextual Analysis of Plea-Bargained Sentences’, American Political Science Review, 1984, vol. 78, pp. 912–27.
Mark Blaug, Economic Theory in Retrospect, 4th edition, Cambridge University Press, 1985, p. 4.
Ibid., p. 5.
The view that is often referred to as the ‘Hypodermic’ metaphor — the media (magic gun) fires the message directly into audience’s head without their own knowledge. The message causes instant reaction from the audience’s mind and without any hesitation is called ‘Magic Bullet Theory’. The media (needle) injects the message into the audience’s mind and it causes changes in audience behavior and psyche towards the message. Audiences are passive and they can’t resist the media message — this is called the ‘Hypodermic Needle Theory’ (see http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Wbgw6lN3-X4J:communicationtheory.org/magic-bullet-or-hypodermic-needle-theory-of-communication/+the+hypodermic+mode l&cd=10&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us).
According to Edward Jay Epstein, Washington Post reporters Bob Wood and Carl Bernstein’s efforts were made possible only because of governmental officials who leaked information to them, federal judge John Sirica’s iron will and high handed courtroom tactics, and a host of other factors (see Edward Jay Epstein, Between Fact and Fiction, Vintage Books, 1975, pp. 19–33).
However, Blair argued that media ‘ownership is not the biggest problem; the way the media operates is’. See http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tony-blair-Rupert-Murdoch-leveson-330049.
The rationale for the global selling strategy, Toffler observed, ‘was supplied in part by marketing guru Theodore Levitt of Harvard, who preached that the world’s needs and desire have been irrevocably homogenized, and who celebrated the coming of global products and brands — implying that the same product, backed by the same advertising, which once sold rationally could now be sold to the whole world’ (see Alvin Toffler, 1990, pp. 339–40, emphasis in the original).
Helen Fulton, ‘Introduction: the power of narrative’, in Helen Fulton, Rosemary Huisman, Julian Murphet and Anne Dunn, Narrative and Media, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 3.
Marketing in the non-lucrative field, which is performed in branches not producing goods and products but elaborates ideas, with the purpose of determining certain social behaviors, starts from a legitimate social cause. It refers to socio-political marketing (see Cristian Romeo Pontincu, ‘Features of the Socio-Political Marketing’, Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov, 2009, vol. 2, no. 51).
See http://www.marketingpower.com/AboutAMA/Pages/Definitionof Marketing.aspx. Moreover, the reader should note that marketing, in its traditional form, implies the presence of four elements — an interested factor (the firm), an environment aimed at (the market), the offered product (the service), and the payment in money (reward acts) for its procurement. These elements are found in the approximately same position, even if in an altered form, in case the object is not necessarily a material product, and the ‘reward’ of the performed actions is not assessed in money. The object ‘remains’ mutual, exactly what the essence of marketing belongs to, i.e. a certain attitude: the desire of the interested factor; which can be the society in its whole, its members, a social organization or even an economic enterprise, to know the requirements of a certain type of the social environment, in order to ingrain certain values and norms. If a commercial company with a marketing outlook, using a series of techniques, manages to find out the client’s requirements, to offer him an adequate product, and by selling the product to obtain a financial profit, a social organization (in this study, a media company) could do the same, pursuing the spreading of an idea, adhesion to a social cause, changing or creating a certain behavior, a certain opinion. (see Cristian-Romeo Polincu, ‘Features of Socio-Political Marketing’, Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov, 2009, vol. 2, no. 51, pp. 232–3.
Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman, ‘Social marketing: an approach to planned social change’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 35, pp. 3–12. Moreover and according to Weinreich, ‘one of the most effective channels that are commonly used in social marketing is mass media since what it does best is to reach the masses’ (see Nedra Kline Weinreich, Hands-On Social Marketing: A Step-by-Step Guide to Designing Change for Good, Sage Publications, Inc; 2nd edition, 2010, p. 209).
Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, MIT Press, 1989, pp. 181–5.
This is particularly relevant to tobacco advertising, ‘as advertisers and tobacco executives attempt to portray as desirable a product with many undesirable attributes; e.g., yellow teeth, stained fingers, tobacco smell, face wrinkles, loss of breath, loss of taste, sickness, and death’ (see D. J. O’Keefe, Persuasion: Theory and Research, Sage Publication, 1990, pp. 53–4). Another marketing effect is the rise in the prevalence of noise induced hearing impairment among teenagers that has been linked to headphone use and targeted marketing strategies.
Walter Truett Anderson, Reality Isn’t What It Used To Be: Theatrical Politics, Ready-to-Wear Religion, Global Myths, Primitive Chic, and Other Wonders of the Postmodern World, HarperOne, 1992, p. 19.
For instance, Klaehn observed that ‘given the interrelations of the state and corporate capitalism and the ideological network’ these sorts of observations, or as he puts it in the propaganda model, ‘has been dismissed as a conspiracy theory and condemned for its overly deterministic view of media behavior’. See Jeffery Klaehn, ‘A Critical Review and Assessment of Herman and Chomsky’s Propaganda Model’, European Journal of Communication, 2002, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 147–82).
William G Domhoff, The Powers That Be: Processes of Ruling Class Domination in America, Vintage Books, 1979, pp. 169.
James Fenimore Cooper, Works of J. Fenimore Cooper: The Crater, Miles Wallingford, P. F. Collier Publisher, 1891, p. 576. It can be accessed at: http://books.google.com/books?id=M20MAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA576&lpg=PA 576&dq=James+Fenimore+Cooper+and+%E2%80%9Cpress-ocracy%E2% 80%9D&source=bl&ots=xtj9vtWZo0&sig=Yw9akmj4-Ad3ST62tECyTGZ_nU8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=sV6zUdG-H_i54AOY2oC4DQ&sqi=2&ved=0CDw Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=James%20Fenimore%20Cooper%20and%20% E2%80%9Cpress-ocracy%E2%80%9D&f=false.
Walter Truett Anderson, Reality Isn’t What It Used To Be: Theatrical Politics, Ready-to-Wear Religion, Global Myths, Primitive Chic, and Other Wonders of the Postmodern World, HarperOne, 1992, p. x.
Walter T. Anderson, Reality isn’t What It Used To Be: Theatrical Politics, Ready-to-Wear Religion, Global Myths, Primitive Chic, and Other Wonders of the Postmodern World, HarperSanFrancisco, 1992, pp. 10.
Plato, The Republic, translated by Allan Bloom, Basic Books, 1968, p. 94.
Walter T. Anderson, 1992, p. 11.
For more information on this topic read a fascinating book by James Ledbetter, Made Possible By: The Death of Public Broadcasting In the United States, Verso, 1997.
B. H Bagdikian, ‘The U. S. media: Supermarket or assembly line?’, Journal of Communication, 1985, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 97–109.
E. Noelle-Neumann, ‘The spiral of silence: A theory of public opinion’, Journal of Communication, 1974, vol. 24, pp. 24–51.
Jeffery C. Alexander, The Sociology of News, W. W. Norton, 2003, p. 120.
See ‘Freedom of the press is not the same as freedom of speech’ at http://www.philosophersbeard.org/2013/01/freedom-of-press-is-not-same-as-freedom.html.
According to Merton others modes of adaptation are; innovation; ritualism; retreatism; and rebellion (Robert K. Merton, 1968, p. 194). In this light, Tedlock and Mannheim observed, ‘Culture came to be seen as discrete units — the normative, ideational and expressive sides of societies, in one formulation of the time. In addition, culture came to be opposed to individual, meaning a generic member of the culture bearing society as a unit of behavior, as agent of innovation, or as a psychological unit’ (see Dennis Tedlock and Bruce Mannheim (eds), The Dialogic Emergence of Culture, University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 12.
Robert K. Merton, 1968, p. 195.
Morris Zeldith, Jr, ‘Theories of Legitimacy’, in John T. Jost and Brenda Major (eds), The Psychology of Legitimacy, Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 47.
See Alain de Botton, 2004, pp. 209–13. The reader should note that these norms and values are not related to the popular notions in some intellectual circles or so-called alternative news agencies as Westernization (http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/05/201151882929682601.html), Arabization (http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/…/westernization-vs-arabization.html), etc. In this book such beliefs are irrelevant and in most cases are completely rejected. The so-called alternatives news agencies are saturated by those who insist on it.
S. Solomon, J. Greenberg and T. Pyszczynski, ‘A Terror Management Theory of Social Behavior: The Psychological Functions of Self-esteem and Cultural Worldviews’, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1991, 24(93): 159.
For instance, in a recent speech at the Council on Foreign Relations in Washington, Jamie Dimon, the chairman and chief executive officer of JPMorgan Chase & Co. (JPM), returned to many of his favorite themes. One was how little he cares for much of what is in the Dodd-Frank law and the proposed Volcker Rule which limits banks’ ability to trade for their own account. He reiterated his belief that the right kind of financial regulation is necessary, in the vein of laws preventing drunk driving. But, Dimon said the new regulatory environment is holding back economic growth. He said he had discussed the topic with business owners and executives around the country: ‘They all say it’s terrible. So it’s not just banks. We’ve done it to ourselves, folks. We’re shooting ourselves in the foot and we’re doing it every day. Get rid of that wet blanket and this thing will take off.’ Even Lloyd Blankfein, the chairman and chief executive officer of Goldman Sachs Group Inc. (GS), has started to make noise again after a few years of laying low. As part of what the press has nicknamed his No Apologies Tour, which has taken Blankfein to forums and media outlets across the country, he has also called for jettisoning the wet blanket. ‘Getting rid of some regulations and rules that are impairing people from investing vast pools of liquidity that are on the sideline, that are not owned by the government, that are theirs to invest but are just sitting on the sideline’ will help get the economy humming again, he told CNBC (see William D. Cohan, ‘How to Crash an Economy and Escape the Scene’, Bloomberge, October 21, 2012. Available at: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-10-22/how-to-crash-an-economy-and-escape-the-scene.html).
Certainly, and by all accounts, the present economic system bears no resemblance to either market economic models on both sides of the Atlantic. It is a system which is dominated by the shareholders of financial institutions that expect to get governmental handouts while the public, and nations, are left to fend for themselves. In either market economic models, while banks and bank-holding companies are in the safety net (and that is why they have deposit insurance), investment banks that take higher risks are supposed to be outside such a safety net. If they make mistakes, they are supposed to fail, and hence it is a blunt contradiction to the principle of models when they were saved.
For instance see Jianping Zhou, Virginia Rutledge, Wouter Bossu, Marc Dobler, Nadege Jassaud and Michael Moore, ‘From Bail-out to Bail-in: Mandatory Debt Restructuring of Systemic Financial Institutions’, IMF, 2012, pp. 3–4.
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© 2014 Elias G. Carayannis and Ali Pirzadeh
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Carayannis, E.G., Pirzadeh, A. (2014). Culture of Mass Society. In: The Knowledge of Culture and the Culture of Knowledge. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137383525_4
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