Abstract
The pace of governmental initiative and reform, both for Spain and the colonies, that slowed following the death of José Patiño in 1736, quickened again around a decade later. Two main factors may be identified as providing the basis for the renewed stability and efficacy apparent in government from the mid-1740s. The first was the final winding-down of the Wars of Jenkins’ Ear and the Austrian Succession; the final Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was not signed until 1748, but major hostilities in the Americas had ceased by the end of 1742. Just as the ending of the long War of Succession had contributed to the first florescence of early Bourbon government after 1713, so a return to peace unquestionably freed up resources and energy for a second flourishing of reforming initiative in the mid-1740s. But the other major factor was the rise to power of Zenón de Somodevilla y Bengoechea, Marqués de la Ensenada, who with Julio Alberoni and José Patiño made up the trio of most influential servants of the early Bourbon Crown. It is to Ensenada, then, and his key servant and collaborator in Peru, Viceroy Manso de Velasco, that we first turn in this chapter.
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Notes
Antonio Rodríguez Villa, Don Cenón de Somodevilla, Marqués de la Ensenada: Ensayo biográfico…. (Madrid: M. Murillo, 1878), pp. 1–11, 28–29.
John Lynch, Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 160, quoting a contemporary opinion.
Sir Richard Lodge (ed.), The Private Correspondence of Sir Benjamin Keene, K.B. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933), xix–xx, and the same author’s “Sir Benjamin Keene, K.B.: A Study in Anglo-Spanish Relations,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 4th series, 15 (1932), pp. 1–43; also José Luis Gómez Urdáñez, “El duque de Duras y el fin del ministerio Ensenada (1752–1754),” Hispania 59:1 (1999), pp. 217–49.
On Ensenada, see Martín Fernández de Navarrete, “Noticia biográfica del Marqués de la Ensenada,” appendix to the same author’s Estado general de la Armada (Madrid: Imprenta Real, 1829); Rodríguez Villa, Don Cenón de Somodevilla, Marqués de la Ensenada; Joaquín María Aranda, El Marqués de la Ensenada: Estudios sobre su administración (Madrid: M. G. Hernández, 1898);
Agustín González de Amezúa y Mayo, Un modelo de estadista: El marqués de la Ensenada (Madrid: J. Ratés, 1917);
and Constancio Eguía Ruiz, El marqués de la Ensenada según un confidente (Madrid: Razón y Fé, 1922).
The few recent works include Felipe Abad León, El marqués de la Ensenada: su vida y su obra, 2 vols (Madrid: Editorial Naval, 1985);
José Luis Gómez Urdáñez, El proyecto reformista de Ensenada (Lleida: Milenio, 1996);
and Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, Silver, Trade, and War: Spain and America in the Making of Early Modern Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), Chap. 8.
On the naval program, see Cesáreo Fernández Duro, Armada española: Desde la unión de los reinos de Castilla y de Aragón, 9 vols. (Madrid: Sucesores de Rivadeneyra, 1895–1903), vol. 6, Chaps. 21–22, which also reproduces the relevant documents from Rodríguez Villa.
On this point, see the otherwise disappointing Lucío Mijares Pérez, “Programa político para América del Marques de la Ensenada,” Revista de Historia de América (Mexico City) 81 (1976), pp. 82–130; also Guillermo Céspedes del Castillo, América hispánica (1492–1898), vol. 6 of Manuel Tuñón de Lara (ed.), Historia de España (Barcelona: Editorial Labor, 1983), pp. 315–19. Note also that John Fisher’s Bourbon Peru takes a start date for this era of 1750; for the rationale behind this chronological approach, see his Introduction.
Quoted in Jean O. McLachlan, “The Seven Years’ Peace and the West Indian Policy of Carvajal and Wall,” English Historical Review 53 (1938), pp. 457–77, esp. p. 464. In 1747, he proposed that ships be permitted to sail for the Indies from any Spanish port: Rodríguez Villa, Don Cenón de Somodevilla, p. 63.
José Antonio Manso de Velasco, Conde de Superunda (Alfredo Moreno Cebrián, ed.), Relación y documentos de gobierno del Virrey del Perú, José Antonio Manso de Velasco, Conde de Superunda (1745–1761) (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1983), pp. 446–49. Manso de Velasco is often referred to by his title rather than his name. But he was created Conde de Superunda only in 1748, and began to use the title only from 1749; so that to avoid anachronism on the one hand, and confusion on the other, he is referred to as Manso de Velasco throughout this book.
M. Salvat Monguillot, “En torno a la fundación de San Felipe el Real (1740),” VI Congreso internacional de historia de América, vol. 3 (Buenos Aires, 1982), pp. 187p–98.
On Manso’s early life and career prior to Peru, see Pilar Latasa Vassallo, “Negociar en red: familia, amistad y paisanaje: El virrey Superunda y sus agentes en Lima y Cádiz (1745–1761),” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 60:2 (2003), pp. 463–92, esp. pp. 465–72.
These include a plaque on the Plaza de Armas, a street running behind it, and a fine portrait in the Cathedral. On Manso and the Lima earthquake, see Charles F. Walker, Shaky Colonialism: The 1746 Earthquake-Tsunami in Lima, Peru, and Its Long Aftermath (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), esp. Chap. 4;
also Pablo E. Pérez-Mallaína-Bueno, Retrato de una ciudad en crisis: La sociedad limeña ante el movimiento sísmico de 1746 (Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 2001).
In addition to Moreno Cebrián, Relación y documentos, see Joseph Dager Alva, Conde de Superunda (Lima: Editorial Brasa, 1995); Martínez de Salinas Alonso Diego Ochagavía Fernández, “El I Conde de Superunda,” Berceo: Boletín del Instituto de Estudios Riojanos 16:58 (1961), pp. 5–48; 16:59 (1961), pp. 161–76; 16:60 (1961), pp. 321–32; 16:61 (1961), pp. 7–24; 17:63 (1962), pp. 171–72; Walker, Shaky Colonialism, esp. Chaps. 4–5; Latasa Vassallo, “Negociar en red”;
María Martínez de Salinas Alonso Luisa, “Noticias del virrey conde de Superunda en el Archivo de la Diputación Foral de Álava,” in Ronald Escobedo Mansilla et al (eds.), Álava y América (Vitoria-Gasteiz: Diputación Foral de Álava, 1996), pp. 351–64.
Mark A. Burkholder and D. S. Chandler, From Impotence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American Audiencias, 1687–1808 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977), Appendix 3.
Cédula, April 29, 1742, in Antonio Muro Orejón, Cedulario americano del siglo XVIII, 3 vols. (Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1956–77), vol. 3, doc. 131, pp. 308–9; for the impact of this decree in Peru, see Villagarcía to Crown, August 12, 1744, A.G.I., Lima 415; cédula, July 18, 1745, and related measures, discussed in Manso to Crown, January 29, 1747, A.G.I., Lima 416.
Alberto Yalí Román, “Sobre alcaldías mayores y corregimientos en Indias: Un ensayo de interpretación,” Jahrbuch fur Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas 9 (1972), pp. 1–39, esp. pp. 36–37.
Cédula, March 27, 1717, in Juan Joseph Matraya y Ricci, Catálogo cronológico de pragmáticas, cédulas, decretos, órdenes, y resoluciones reales. (1819; Buenos Aires: Instituto de Investigaciones de Historia del Derecho, 1978), p. 294.
Guillermo Céspedes del Castillo, Reorganización de la hacienda virreinal peruana en el siglo XVIII (Madrid, 1953); first published in Anuario de Historia del Derecho Español 23 (1953), pp. 329–69, see pp. 333–34.
One celebrated account is that of Jorge Juan y Santacilia and Antonio de Ulloa, Noticias secretas de América (1748; Madrid: Historia 16, 1991), pp. 240–52.
Lucío Mijares Pérez, “La permisión reglada de los repartimientos por los corregidores y alcaldes mayores,” in Estudios sobre política indigenista española en América, 3 vols (Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid, 1975–77), vol. 3, pp. 99–105.
The legislation receives detailed and well-documented treatment in Alfredo Moreno Cebrián, El corregidor de Indios y la economía peruana en el siglo XVIII (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1977), pp. 285–384.
For a revisionist study of repartimiento, however, see Jeremy Baskes, Indians, Merchants and Markets: A Reinterpretation of the Repartimiento and Spanish-Indian Economic Relations in Late Colonial Oaxaca, Mexico, 1750–1821 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000).
On the estanco del tabaco, see esp. Catalina Vizcarra, “Bourbon Intervention in the Peruvian Tobacco Industry, 1752–1813,” Journal of Latin American Studies 39:3 (Aug. 2007), pp. 567–93; Manso, Relación, pp. 362–72, 441;
an early study is Guillermo Céspedes del Castillo, “La renta del tabaco en el virreinato del Perú,” Revista Histórica (Lima) 21 (1954), pp. 138–63.
These Ordinances are analyzed at length in Manuel Moreyra y Paz-Soldán, La Moneda colonial en el Perú (Lima: Banco Central de Reserva del Perú, 1980), pp. 204–18.
José Toribio Medina, Las Monedas chilenas (Santiago de Chile: El autor, 1902); A. Fontecilla Larraín, “Las Monedas de Chile desde la Conquista hasta hoy día,” Boletín de la Academia Chilena de la Historia 8.
Manso, Relación, pp. 345–49; Manso to Crown, November 27, 1746, and accompanying report, A.G.I., Lima 415; Alfredo Moreno Cebrián, “Análisis de la reforma en el ramo de alcabalas del Perú (1746),” Revista Internacional de Sociología 15–16 (1975), pp. 121–37.
For example, see David Cahill, “Taxonomy of a Colonial ‘Riot’: The Arequipa Disturbances of 1780,” in John R. Fisher, Allan Kuethe, and Anthony McFarlane (eds.), Reform and Insurrection in Bourbon New Granada and Peru (Gainsville: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), pp. 255–91, discussing events in Arequipa in 1780.
Manso, Relación, pp. 379–81; Manso to Crown, October 1, 1752, A.G.I., Lima 417; further relevant documentation in this legajo and in Lima 419. A copy of the Ordinances of 1752 may be found in the library of the Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, Seville; see also Ismael Sánchez Bella, Iglesia y Estado en la América española (Pamplona: Universidad de Navarra, 1990), p. 160.
For a bleak account of the health implications of mercury mining at Huancavelica, see Nicholas A. Robins, Mercury, Mining, and Empire: The Human and Ecological Cost of Colonial Silver Mining in the Andes (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011).
On Escurrechea, see Enrique Tandeter, Coercion and Market: Silver Mining in Colonial Potosí, 1692–1826 (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1993), pp. 158–59, 163–64,
and Antonio Matilla Tascón, Historia de las minas de Almadén, 2 vols. (Madrid: Gráficas Osca, 1958–87), vol. 2, pp. 135, 349–50. The idea of supplying Potosí with mercury from Almadén via Buenos Aires may bave been that of Escurrechea, since he made several proposals along these lines to the Madrid government.
On Ulloa, see Miguel Molina Martínez, Antonio de Ulloa en Huancavelica (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 1995).
On late Bourbon Huancavelica, see Arthur P. Whitaker, The Huancavelica Mercury Mine: A Contribution to the History of the Bourbon Renaissance in the Spanish Empire (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1941);
John R. Fisher, Silver Mines and Silver Miners in Colonial Peru, 1776 –1824 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1977), esp. Chap. 5.
Consejo de Indias, April 22, 1748, and “Copia de la Instrucción original … para los cargos de Superintendente de minas, y visitador de Caxas,” May 2, 1749, both in A.G.I., Charcas 435; Manso, Relación, pp. 312–13; Pedro Vicente Cañete y Domínguez, Guía histórica, física, política, civil y legal del gobierno e intendencia de la provincia de Potosí (1787; Potosí: Editorial Potosí, 1952), pp. 338, 606–7; Tandeter, Coercion and Market, p. 124.
Guillermo Ovando Sanz, La academia de minas de Potosí, 1757–1970 (La Paz: Banco Central de Bolivia / Academia Boliviana de Historia, 1975), pp. 6–11; see also document III, 2, 3.
Vicente Palacio Atard, “La incorporación a la Corona del Banco de Rescates de Potosí,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 2 (1945), pp. 723–37; for a more nuanced modern account, see Tandeter, Coercion and Market, pp. 121–26.
Kenneth J. Andrien, “The Coming of Enlightened Reform in Bourbon Peru: Secularization of the Doctrinas de indios, 1746–1773,” in Gabriel Paquette (ed.), Enlightened Reform in Southern Europe and its Atlantic Colonies, c. 1750–1830 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009), pp. 183–202, see p. 200.
Antolín Abad Pérez, Los Franciscanos en América (Madrid: Mapfre, 1992), p. 143.
J. Pérez Villanueva and B. Escandell Bonet (eds.), Historia de la Inquisición en España y América, 3 vols. (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Inquisitoriales, 1984), vol. 1, p. 1341;
see also José Toribio Medina, Historia del Tribunal de la Inquisición de Lima (1569–1820), 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Santiago de Chile: Fondo Histórico y Bibliográfico J. T. Medina, 1956), vol. 2, pp. 280–88.
Sergio F. Bonnet, “La expedición al Mar del Sur de la flota de Don Francisco de Orozco,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 3 (1946), pp. 1,033–39.
On the last years of the Armada, see Pablo E. Pérez-Mallaína Bueno and Bibiano Torres Ramírez, La Armada del Mar del Sur (Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1987), pp. 326–38.
Material relating to the construction may be found in A.G.I., Lima 416 and 1,490 to 1,492; see also Juan Manuel Zapatero, “El castillo Real Felipe del Callao,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 34 (1977), pp. 703–33,
and the bibliography to Guillermo Lohmann Villena, Las defensas militares de Lima y Callao (Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1964).
José Joaquín Real Díaz, “Las ferias de Jalapa,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 16 (1959), pp. 167–314, see pp. 260–61;
Antonio García-Baquero González, Cadiz y el Atlántico (1717–1778): El comercio colonial español bajo el monopolio gaditano, 2nd ed. 2 vols. (Cadiz: Diputación Provincial de Cádiz, 1988), vol. 1, pp. 161–62; Walker, Spanish Politics, p. 216.
Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III, 1759–1789 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), part 2.
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© 2014 Adrian J. Pearce
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Pearce, A.J. (2014). Reform Renewed: The Second Cycle, 1745 to 1763. In: The Origins of Bourbon Reform in Spanish South America, 1700–1763. Studies of the Americas. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137362247_7
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