Abstract
Faced with the irregular and fluid nature of available labour, to which the epidemics of disease contributed greatly, the renewal and reproduction of serviçais had to be intensified and the mechanisms of its protection reinforced without openly impairing the humanitarian and civilising declarations supporting the legitimacy of Portuguese colonisation. If to this scenario we add the pressures generated by the anti-slavery campaigns of British humanitarian groups, we can frame the geographical broadening of labour recruitment undertaken by the Portuguese. However, there were even more prosaic reasons for the implantation of a system of contracted work, based on the circulation of groups of labourers through the colonies. It could result from voluntary options seeking to secure capital to meet the tax demands made by colonial administrations, or it might represent the product of several types of forced or coerced labour recruitment. It might even result because, according to Sampayo e Mello, ‘the stability of labour’ — ‘an inescapable precondition of colonial exploitation’ — had become ‘almost impossible to achieve in the regime of free contract in which the blacks so easily accept as transgress’.1
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Notes
José Francisco da Silva, ‘Emigração: Assistencia aos Emigrantes’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional: Actas das Sessões (1901), 22.
Sampayo e Mello, Política Indígena, 219–220; Francisco Mantero, ‘Regimen do trabalho em S. Thomé e em Angola’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional (1901), 61.
For an overview see Robert Rowland, ‘Velhos e novos Brasis’, in Bethencourt and Chaudhuri, eds., História da Expansão Portuguesa, vol. 4, 303–374 and Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo, ‘Portugal no mundo’, in Pedro Tavares de Almeida, ed., História Contemporânea de Portugal. Vol. 2: A Construção Nacional, 1834–1890 (Madrid/Lisboa: Fundación Mapfre&Editora Objectiva, 2013 ), 77–108
For a later period see Cláudia Castelo, Passagens para África ( Porto: Edições Afrontamento, 2007 ).
Luís Schwalbach Lucci, Emigração e Colonização (Lisbon: Typ. do Annuario Commercial, 1914), 73–74, 81–89.
Henrique Galvão, ‘Um critério do povoamento europeu nas colónias portuguesas’, Boletim da Agência Geral das Colónias, 8 May 1932, 3–26.
Henrique Barahona da Costa, ‘O problema das obras publicas nas suas relações com o progresso e desenvolvimento dos nossos dominios africanos’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional ( Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1901 ), 6.
Gerald J. Bender, Angola under Portuguese ( London: Heinemann, 1978 ), 87–98.
José Francisco da Silva, ‘Emigração: Assistencia aos emigrantes’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional (1901), 22.
A more profound study of the emergence of colonial science in Portugal remains to be made. For the French case, see the excellent work by Emmanuelle Sibeud, Une Science Impériale pour L’Afrique. (Paris: EHESS, 2002)
For the Belgian case see Marc Poncelet, L’invention des sciences coloniales belges ( Paris: Karthala, 2008 ).
Ernesto de Vasconcellos, ‘Ensino colonial nas escolas superiores. Instituto Colonial’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional (1901), 42–43
Count of Penha Garcia, ‘Bases para a organisação de um museu colonial como centro de informações coloniais’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional (1901), 52, 54–55
John Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire ( Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986 ), 121–146
For the British Imperial Institute see also William Golant, Image of Empire ( Exeter: University of Exeter, 1984 )
Michael Worboys, ‘The Imperial Institute: The State and the Development of the Natural Resources of the Colonial Empire, 1887–1923’ in John M. MacKenzie, ed., Imperialism and the Natural World ( Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990 ), 164–186.
Count of Penha Garcia, ‘Bases para a organisação do ensino colonial prático nas escolas de agricultura, do commercio e nos institutos industriaes, com largo desenvolvimento da geographia economica e estudo especial das nos-sas riquezas coloniaes e suas relações com a economia nacional’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional (1901), 45.
Count of Penha Garcia, ‘Bases para a organisação de um Museu Colonial como Centro de Informações Coloniaes’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional: Actas das Sessões (1901), 55
Count of Penha Garcia, debate at the second session of the National Colonial Congress, in Congresso Colonial Nacional: Actas das Sessões (1901), 153–154.
Domingos de Oliveira, ‘Influência da instabilidade da legislação na admin-istração colonial’, Congresso Colonial Nacional (Lisboa: A Liberal-Officina Typographica, 1902), 83–85; Conde da Penha Garcia, in idem, 153.
Carlos Mello Geraldes, Instituições de Fomento Colonial Estrangeiras ( Lisboa: Tipografia Universal, 1912 ).
Idem, 63, 111, 119–120. For Kew Gardens see Richard Drayton, Nature’s Government ( New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000 )
for the Jardin Colonial see C. Bonneuil and M. Kleiche, Du jardin d’essais colonial à la station expéri-mentale 1880–1930 ( Montpellier: Cirad, 1993 )
for the Museum at Tervuren see Dirk Van Den Audenaerde & Sony Van Hoecke, eds., Africa Museum Tervuren 1898–1998 (Brussels: Musée Royal de l’Afrique centrale, 1998). For the general problem see also Daniel R. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress, especially 209–258
Mark Harrison, ‘Science and the British Empire’ and Michael A. Osborne, ‘Science and the French Empire’, Isis, Vol. 96, n° 1 (2005), 56–63 and 80–87.
João Carneiro de Moura, A administração colonial portuguesa ( Lisboa: A.M. Teixeira, 1910 ), 11
For a sample of other common perspectives see Ruy Ennes Ulrich, Ciência e administração colonial ( Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade, 1908 )
Lourenço Cayolla, Sciencia de colonização ( Lisboa: Typographia da Cooperativa Militar, 1912 ).
For an overview see Ong Jin Hui, ‘Chinese indentured labour: coolies and colonies’, in Robin Cohen, ed., The Cambridge Survey, 51–56; and, among others, Rana P. Behal and Marcel van der Linden, eds., Coolies, capital and colonialism ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006 ).
Quoted in Lucci, Emigração e Colonização, 92; Valentim Alexandre, Origens do Colonialismo Português Moderno, 1822–1891 ( Lisbon: Sá da Costa Editora, 1979 ), 216–217.
Leroy Vail and Landeg White, Capitalism and Colonialism in Mozambique ( London: Heinemann, 1980 ), 145.
Ruy Ennes Ulrich, Política Colonial ( Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade, 1909 ), 128–129.
Vail and White, Capitalism and Colonialism in Mozambique, 166. See also Eduardo do Couto Lupi, Relatório do Governador do Districto de Quelimane, 1907–1909 ( Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1910 ), 93
William Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire (1825–1975) ( Manchester: Machester University Press, 1985 ), 105.
See Sérgio Chichava, ‘Unlike the Other Whites? The Swiss in Mozambique under Colonialism’, in Eric Morier-Genoud and Michel Cahen, eds. Imperial Migrations (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 149–167, especially 161–162.
Letter to William Cadbury, dated 30 December 1912, in reply to his report, Os Serviçaes de S. Thomé and to a letter Cadbury published in Nineteenth Century. Augusto Freire de Andrade, A Questão dos Serviçaes de S. Thomé ( Lisbon: Typografia do Anuário Comercial, 1913 ), 3.
The work by Paul Reinsch, Colonial Administration (New York and London: Macmillan & Co., 1905) is clearly the source of inspiration to Freire de Andrade. Freire de Andrade, Relatório feito pelo Director-Geral das Colónias, 4–5, 25.
Freire de Andrade, Relatórios sobre Moçambique, Vol. II, (Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1908), 62ff.
For Angola see the classic by Alfredo Margarido, ‘Les Porteurs: forme de domination et agents de changement en Angola (XVIIe–XIXe siècles)’, Revue française d’histoire d’outre-mer, vol. 65, n° 240 (1978), 377–400.
There is no comprehensive empirical research on the role played by tax-extraction policies and practices on the developments of the Portuguese colonial empire from the late nineteenth century onwards. For an example regarding the British Empire see Leigh A. Gardner, Taxing Colonial Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012 ).
António Almada Negreiros, La Main-d’Oeuvre en Afrique (Paris: [s.n.], 1900). See also Jerónimo, ‘The “Civilisation guild”’, 179ff.
Sampayo e Mello, Política Indígena, 248; Count of Penha Garcia, ‘Bases para a organisação do ensino colonial’, 50; Viscount de Giraud, ‘Missões commerciaes no interior de Angola’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional (1901), 71–72.
J. P. Oliveira Martins, O Brasil e as Colónias Portuguesas (Lisbon: Guimarães, 1978 ), 175–179, 255
Valentim Alexandre, ‘Questão nacional e questão colonial em Oliveira Martins’ and ‘O império colonial no século XX’, both in Velho Brasil, Novas Áfricas: Portugal e o Império (1808–1975) (Oporto: Edições Afrontamento, 2000), 174–179 and 182, respectively.
Francisco Dias da Costa, ‘Relatório apresentado à Camara dos Deputados pelo sr. ministro da Marinha e do Ultramar ácerca das provincias da África Occidental’, Portugal em África, 57, September (1898), 326.
Charles Ageron, ‘Gambetta et la reprise de l’expansion coloniale’, Revue Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, LIX (1972), 196–197. For all these issues in Portugal see Jerónimo, A Diplomacia do Império, 210–215, and Idem, ‘Missions et Empire. Politique et religion dans le nouveaux Brésiles en Afrique (1860–1890)’, Histoire, Monde & cultures religieuses (forthcoming, 2014 )
For the problem of anticlericalism in the French colonial empire see, among others, Philippe Delisle, L’anticléricalisme dans les colonies françaises sous la 3ème République ( Paris: Indes Savantes, 2009 )
See also James P. Daughton, An Empire Divided (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006 )
James P. Daughton and Owen White, eds., In God’s Empire ( Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012 ).
Luciano Cordeiro, ‘Primeiro Relatório Apresentado à Comissão de Missões do Ultramar’ and ‘Segundo Relatório Apresentado à Comissão de Missões do Ultramar’, in Luciano Cordeiro, Questões Coloniais (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade, 1934), 109–134, 135–159, at 112–113.
António Enes, Moçambique, 175–178, 181–186, 189; Eduardo da Costa, Estudo sobre a Administração Civil das nossas Possessões Africanas: Memória Apresentada ao Congresso Colonial ( Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1903 ), 168–174.
See Jeanne Marie Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism ( London: James Currey Ltd., 1995 ), 12–13.
For a classic account of the problem see José Capela, O vinho para o preto ( Porto: Afrontamento, 1973 ).
O A fricano, 25 December 1908. Aurélio Rocha mistakes the date of this issue, listing it as 28 December. Aurélio Rocha, ‘Associativismo e nativismo: os fundamentos do discurso ideológico’, in Fátima Ribeiro and António Sopa, eds., 140 Anos de Imprensa em Moçambique (Maputo: Associação Moçambicana de Língua Portuguesa, 1996), 31–33.
For the British case, see Andrew Porter, ‘Empires in the Mind’, in P. J. Marshall, ed., The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996 ), 186–189, 202
See also Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo, ‘Os missionários do alfabeto nas colónias portuguesas (1880–1930)’, in Diogo Ramada Curto, ed., Estudos de Sociologia da Leitura em Portugal no Século XX (Lisbon: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 2006), 29–67, especially 32–34.
António Cabreira, O Ensino Colonial e o Congresso de Lisboa ( Lisbon: Tipografia Gutemberg, 1902 ), 3–4.
Norton de Matos, Memórias e Trabalhos da Minha Vida, Vol. III (Lisbon: Editora Marítimo-Colonial, 1944), 302–303, 317.
J. V. Solipa Norte, Relatório do Inspector da Instrução Primária da Provincia de Moçambique (Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1920 ), 6–13, 17
For a study of colonial education in Mozambique see Ana Isabel Madeira, Ler, Escrever e Orar (Lisbon: PhD Thesis, Universidade de Lisboa, 2007), especially 373ff.
José Gonçalo Santa Rita, ‘Ensino nas colónias. Indigenato. Colonato’, in Congresso Colonial Nacional ( Lisbon: Tipografia América, 1924 ), 1–3.
Mário Costa, ‘Esboço histórico e estatístico da instrução na colónia de Moçambique’, Boletim Económico e Estatístico, Vol. 5 ( Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1928 ).
Mário Barradas, ‘Relatório’, Boletim Económico e Estatístico Vol. 5 ( Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1928 ), 56–57.
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© 2015 Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo
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Jerónimo, M.B. (2015). ‘Redemptive Labour’ and the Missionaries of the Alphabet. In: The ‘Civilising Mission’ of Portuguese Colonialism, 1870–1930. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137355911_4
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