Abstract
A.P. Thornton once described Kennedy’s Latin Primer, a standard public school text for much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, as ‘one of the winding sheets of empire’. This was hyperbole, meant to underscore his assertion that Britain’s elite educational institutions had lost their vitality by the 1920s and 1930s, and were no longer instilling the proper imperial spirit in graduates. By implication these same institutions — and the classical curriculum symbolized by Kennedy’s Primer — had been very successful at instilling that spirit during the empire’s 19th-century heyday. Elsewhere Thornton was even more explicit. He referred to elite education in Britain’s public schools and universities as an ‘elixir of empire’: a powerful cultural force inculcating particular imperial ideas and values in Britain’s elites, albeit in a sometimes mysterious, often uneven, and entirely unscientific manner.62
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P.J. Rich (1989) Elixir of Empire: the English Public Schools, Freemasonry, Ritual and Imperialism (London), p. 31.
See J.A. Mangan (1998) The Games Ethic and Imperialism (London) pp. 21–3.
N. Hans (1951) New Trends in Education in the Eighteenth Century (London) Table. III.
M.L. Clarke (1959) Classical Education in England (Cambridge) p. 84. T.W. Bamford (1967) The Rise of the Public Schools (London) p. 157.
Vivian Ogilvie (1957) The English Public School (London).
C. Stray (2001) ‘A Parochial Anomaly: The Classical Tripos 1822–1900’, in Stray and Smith (eds) Teaching and Learning in Nineteenth Century Cambridge (Cambridge) pp. 31–44, and (1996) ‘Culture and Discipline: Classics and Society in Victorian England’, International Journal of the Classical Tradition, p. 77. (1997) ‘Thucydides or Grote?: Classical Disputes and Disputed Classics in Nineteenth-Century Cambridge’, Transactions of the American Philological Association, vol. 127, pp. 363–72, and especially (1998) Classics Transformed (Oxford). See also D.K. Jones (1977) The Making of the Education System 1851–81 (London) and N. Hans (1951) New Trends in Education in the Eighteenth Century (London).
Gathorne-Hardy, J. (1978) The Old School Tie: The Phenomenon of the English Public School (London) p. 32.
Marshall, P.J. (2003) ‘A Free Though Conquering People’: Eighteenth-Century Britain and its Empire (Aldershot). V.G. Kiernan (1982) ‘Tennyson, King Arthur, and Imperialism’, in R. Samuel and G.S. Jones (eds) Culture, Ideology and Politics: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm, History Workshop Series (London). C. Dewey (1993) Anglo-Indian Attitudes: the Mind of the Indian Civil Service (London). R. Symonds (1986) Oxford and Empire: The Last Lost Cause? (Oxford). J.A. Plotz (1993) ‘Latin for Empire: Kipling’s Regulus as a Classics Class for the Ruling Classes’, The Lion and the Unicorn, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 152–67.
M. Bradley (2010) ‘Tacitus’ Agricola and the Conquest of Britain: Representations of Empire in Victorian and Edwardian England’, in M. Bradley (ed.) Classics and Imperialism in the British Empire (Oxford) pp. 127–8. R. Jenkyns (1992) The Legacy of Rome: a new appraisal (Oxford) p. 2. C. Edwards ‘Introduction’ in C. Edwards (1999) Roman Presences: Receptions of Rome in European Culture 1789–1945 (Cambridge) p. 8. P. Freeman (1996) ‘British Imperialism and the Roman Empire,’ in J. Webster and N.J. Cooper (eds) Roman Imperialism: Post-Colonial Perspectives (University of Leicester, School of Archaeological Studies, 1996) p. 23. N. Vance (1997) The Victorians and Ancient Rome (Oxford) p. 222. See also: P. Ayres (1997) Classical Culture and the Idea of Rome in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge). M. Beard (2000) The Invention of Jane Harrison (Cambridge, Mass.). R.R., Bolgar (1979) ‘Classical Elements in the social, political, and educational thought of Thomas and Matthew Arnold’ in R.R. Bolgar (ed.) Classical Influences on Western Thought: 1650–1870 (Cambridge). L. Dowling (1994) Hellenism and Homosexuality in Victorian Oxford (Ithaca) and ‘Roman Decadence’ and idem (1985) ‘Victorian Historiography’, Victorian Studies, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 579–608. R. Jenkyns (1980) The Victorians and Ancient Greece (Cambridge MA). H.O. Pappé (1979) ‘The English Utilitarians and Athenian Democracy’ in R.R. Bolgar (ed.) Classical Influences on Western Thought: 1650–1870 (Cambridge) pp. 295–308. Y. Prins (1999) ‘Greek Maenads, Victorian Spinsters,’ in R. Dellamora (ed.) Victorian Sexual Dissidence (London) and idem. (1999) Victorian Sappho (Princeton). M.R. Stropper (1981) ‘Greek Philosophy and the Victorians’, Phronesis, vol. 26, pp. 267–85.
A. Markley (2004) Stateliest Measures: Tennyson and the Literature of Greece and Rome (Toronto) p. 16.
P. Vasunia (2005) ‘Greek, Latin, and the Indian Civil Service’, The Cambridge Classical Journal: Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, vol. 51, p. 63. See also I. Hurst (2006) Victorian women writers and the classics: the feminine of Homer (Oxford) pp. 12–13. S. Goldhill (2002) Who Needs Greek?: Contests in the Cultural History of Hellenism (Cambridge) pp. 181, 193–4. R. S. Mantena (2010) ‘Imperial Ideology and the Uses of Rome in Discourses on Britain’s Indian Empire’, in M. Bradley (ed.) Classics and Imperialism in the British Empire (Oxford) p. 54. E. Reisz (2010) ‘Classics, Race, and Edwardian Anxieties about Empire’ in Bradley (ed.) Classics and Imperialism in the British Empire (Oxford) p. 211.
Especially C. Stray (1998) Classics Transformed: Schools, Universities and Society in England, 1830–1960 (Oxford). Also J.R de S. Honey (1977) Tom Brown’s Universe (London) p. 134.
Ibid., p. 33. See also E. Mack (1938) The Public Schools and British Opinion: 1780–1860 an Examination of the Relationship between Contemporary Ideas and the Evolution of an English Institution (London) p. 59.
The anecdote is recounted by M.L. Clarke (1959) Classical Education in England (Cambridge) p. 86. J. Bowen also noted ‘the mystifying function’ of the classics. See his (1989) ‘Education, ideology and the ruling class’, in G.W. Clarke (ed.) Rediscovering Hellenism (Cambridge) p. 183. See also V. Larson (1999) ‘Classics and the acquisition and validation of power in Britain’s Imperial Century (1815–1914)’, International Journal of the Classical Tradition, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 225, and C. Hagerman (2008) ‘Secret ciphers, secret knowledge and imperial power: the classics in British India’ Victorian Newsletter no. 113, Spring 2008, pp. 1–21.
J. Massie (1890) ‘Middle Class Education’, Westminster Review, vol. 133, p. 159.
V. Knox (1781) Liberal Education: Or a Practical Treatise on Acquiring Useful and Polite Learning (London), vol. 1, p. 4. Quoted in Mack, The Public Schools and British Opinion: 1780–1860, p. 178. Rothblatt also notes this element of classical education in the 18th century, though he argues that it was not nearly as common then as it became in the 19th century. See S. Rothblatt (1976) Tradition and Change in Liberal Education (London) p. 44.
Quoted in N. Vance (1997) The Victorians and Ancient Rome (Oxford) p. 13. Vance himself followed M. Craze (1972) King’s School Worcester (London) p. 286. See also Alfred Milner’s defence of compulsory Greek: R. Symonds (1986) Oxford and Empire: The Last Lost Cause? (Oxford) p. 18.
Rothblatt, Tradition and Change, p. 44. See also Mack, The Public Schools and British Opinion, 1780–1860, p. 182, and J. Gathorne-Hardy (1978) The Old School Tie: The Phenomenon of the English Public School (London) p. 139. See also V. Knox (1781) Liberal Education: Or a Practical Treatise on acquiring Useful and Polite Learning (London), vol. 1, p. 11.
W. Rose ‘The Conclusion to Dr. Ferguson’s History of the Progress…’ Monthly Review vol. 69 (1783) p. 105. E. Copleston (1810) A Reply to the Calumnies of the Edinburgh Review against Oxford (Oxford) p. 169. For Arnold, see T. Bamford (1960) Thomas Arnold (London) p. 69. For Browning, see E. Mack (1939) The Public Schools and British Opinion since 1860: The Relationship between Contemporary Ideas and the Evolution of an English Institution (London) p. 166, following H. Sanderson (1931) Memories of sixty years (London). W.Y. Sellar (1857) ‘Characteristics of Thucydides’ Oxford Essays 1857 (London) p. 313. See also Gathorne-Hardy, The Old School Tie, p. 138.
J.C. Stobart (1912) The Grandeur that was Rome. A Survey of Roman Culture and Civilization (London), p. 3. Stray, Classics Transformed, p. 183, points out there were critics who considered classical education particularly unsuited to an imperial people. They were in the minority, however.
Gathorne-Hardy, The Old School Tie, p. 33. Rothblatt, Tradition and Change, p. 44. M. Batchelor (1981) Cradle of Empire: A preparatory school through Nine Reigns (London) p. 25. Honey, Tom Brown’s Universe, p. 133. See also V. Larson (1999) ‘Classics and the acquisition and validation of power in Britain’s Imperial Century (1815–1914)’, International Journal of the Classical Tradition, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 195.
W. Williams (1993) ‘Reading Greek like a Man of the World: Macaulay and the Classical Languages’, Greece and Rome, vol. 40, no. 2, p. 201. After G.O. Trevelyan (1908) Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay by his Nephew (London). For identical sentiments consult C. Rowcroft, (1852) Confessions of an Etonian (London), vol. 1, p. 28.
See especially P. Vasunia (2009) ‘Greek, Latin, and the Indian Civil Service,’ in J. Hallet and C. Stray (eds) British Classics outside England: the academy and beyond (Waco) p. 69. Also Larson, ‘Classics and the acquisition and validation of power’, pp. 201–4.
Anon. (1870) ‘Classical Education’ Harrovian, vol. 1, p. 120.
J.R. Seeley (1870) ‘English in Schools’ in Roman Imperialism and other Lectures and Essays (London) p. 241.
See also: J. Sutherland (1868) ‘Our Grammar Schools’, Gentleman’s Magazine, vol. 225, p. 311. H. Nettleship (1890) The Moral Influence of Literature & Classical Education in Past and at Present. Two Popular Addresses (London) pp. 59–60. G. Combe (1830) ‘Public Schools of England’, Edinburgh Review, vol. 51, pp. 65–80. A. Bain (1879) ‘The Classical Controversy’, Contemporary Review, vol. 35, p. 832.
T. Romano (1997) ‘Gentlemanly versus Scientific Ideals: John Burdon Sanderson, Medical Education, and the Failure of the Oxford School of Physiology’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 71, p. 227. See also Gert Brieger (1991) ‘Classics and Character: Medicine and Gentility’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 65, p. 88–109.
C. A. Bristed (2008) An American in Victorian Cambridge: Charles Astor Bristed’s Five years in an English University, ed. C. Stray (Exeter) pp. 36–8.
Reprinted in G.M. Young and W.D. Handcock (eds) (1956) English Historical Documents 1833–1874 (London) p. 900. For the Commissioners, see Mack, The Public Schools and British Opinion since 1860, p. 35.
C. Stray, ‘Introduction’ in C. A. Bristed (2008) An American in Victorian Cambridge: Charles Astor Bristed’s Five Years in an English University (Exeter) pp. xx–xxi.
S. Smith (1809) ‘Professional Education’, Edinburgh Review, vol. 15, pp. 40–53 and (1810) ‘Public Schools of England’, Edinburgh Review, vol. 16, pp. 326–34. Roundell, C. (1903) The London Times, 11 April 1903, p. 5. See also A. Smith (1776) An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London) p. 344. Emphasis added.
D. Newsome (1961) Godliness and Good Learning (London) p. 62, J. Chandos (1984) Boys Together (London) pp. 156–9.
F.W. Farrar, (1868) ‘Public School Education’, Fortnightly Review, vol. 92, pp. 34–49.
Clarendon Commission (1864) Report of the Public Schools Commission: General Report, vol. 1, p. 44.
For evidence of John Bright quoting Homer (Odyssey 22.412), see Sir E. Cook (1919) More Literary Recreations (London) p. 37. See Stray, Classics Transformed, pp. 67–8, and Goldhill, Who needs Greek? p. 207, for another critic, Henry Sidgwick, engaging in a drinking-game involving completing quotations from Horace.
E.T. Burney (1856) ‘The Enjoyment of the Classics’, Haileybury Observer, vol. 8, pp. 292, 375.
T. Hughes (1989) Tom Brown’s Schooldays (Oxford), pp. 59, 285, 313. Arthur represents the type rather more interested in his classical studies.
Andrew Sinclair ‘By their speech you shall know them’ in (1977) The World of the Public School (London) 183. For ‘vale’ see A. Le Blanc (1824) ‘The King of Clubs’, The Etonian, vol. III, no. VIII, fourth edition, pp. 1–12.
W. Tuckwell (1900) Reminiscences of Oxford (London) pp. 94–5. For the English translation, see T. Jackson & W. Sinclair (1833) Uniomachia, or the Battle at the Union, a Homeric fragment, translated by Archdeacon Giles (Oxford).
For example, see Sir H.C. Maxwell-Lyte (1911) History of Eton College (London) p. 382. Keate shows up particularly well in this account. For Vaughn, see E.W. Howson and G.T. Warner (1898) Harrow School (London) p. 109.
G.W. Fisher (1899) Annals of Shrewsbury School (London), p. 305.
O. Browning (1910) Memories of Sixty Years at Eton, Cambridge and Elsewhere (New York) p. 66. excerpted in P.H.J. Gosden (1969) How they were Taught (Oxford) pp. 83, 87. Dewey, Anglo-Indian Attitudes: The Mind of the Indian Civil Service, pp. 122–3.
Presentation of a Testimonial to the Rev. James Amiraux Jeremie by the Students of Haileybury College. Reprinted by Stephen Austin (Hertford 1850) pp. 2–3.
P. Penner (1987) Robert Needham Cust, 1821–1909: A Personal Biography (Lewiston) pp. 45, 49.
Monier Monier-Williams (1894) Memorials of Old Haileybury College (Westminster) p. 7.
For example E. Bulwer-Lytton (1831) ‘Spirit of Society in England and France’, Edinburgh Review, vol. 52, 73 ff. For further examples, see E. Mack (1938) The Public Schools and British Opinion: 1780–1860 An Examination of the Relationship between Contemporary Ideas and the Evolution of an English Institution (London) p. 60, and idem., (1939) The Public Schools and British Opinion since 1860: The Relationship between Contemporary Ideas and the Evolution of an English Institution (London) pp. 64–5.
E. Burney (1856) ‘The Enjoyment of the Classics’, Haileybury Observer, vol. 8, p. 75.
B. Price (1879) ‘On the Worth of a Classical Education’, Contemporary Review, vol. 34, p. 805.
Quoted in Goldhill, Who needs Greek?, p. 202. See also I.G. Smith (1868) ‘Lowe and Huxley on the Classics’, Contemporary Review, vol. 9, p. 42.
G.W. Fisher (1899) Annals of Shrewsbury School (London) p. 326.
Ibid. p. 305. On the high quality of Shrewsbury scholarship, see Bristed, Five Years in an English University, pp. 251–2.
M. McCrum (1989) Thomas Arnold Head Master: A Reassessment (Oxford) p. 92. T. Copley (2002) Black Tom, Arnold of Rugby: the Myth and the Man (London) p. 153.
Quoted in H.C. Barnard (1947) A History of English Education from 1760 (London), p. 78. See also A.P. Stanley (1860) The Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold (London) pp. 188–9 for Arnold’s interest in history, confirmed of course by his multi-volume History of Rome.
Noted as early as 1897 by Sir Joshua Fitch (1897) Thomas and Matthew Arnold and Their Influence on English Education (London) pp. 152–5.
Ibid., pp. 380–2. Keate’s predecessor Goodall was also considered an inspirational teacher by some senior boys. Maxwell-Lyte, History of Eton College, p. 365. For anecdotes of the more negative variety, see R. Nevil (1911) Floreat Etona, Anecdotes and Memories of Eton College (London) pp. 230–40.
J. Bardoux (1899) Memories of Oxford, trans. by W.R. Barker (London) p. 10.
J. Plotz (1993) ‘Latin for Empire: Kipling’s Regulus as a Classics Class for the Ruling Classes’, The Lion and the Unicorn, vol. 17, no. 2 (1993) p. 162, following J. Morris (1978) The Oxford Book of Oxford (Oxford) p. 296 and A.P. Stanley, The Life and Correspondence vol. 2, pp. 360–1.
P. Vasunia, (2009) ‘Greek, Latin, and the Indian Civil Service’, in J. Hallet and C. Stray (eds) British classics outside England: the academy and beyond (Waco) p. 63. Larson, ‘Classics and the acquisition’, p. 197.
Lord Alexander Woodhouselee (1783–1801–1839) Universal History from the Creation of the World to the Beginning of the 18th Century (London) vol. 2, p. 73.
Wm. Hodgson (1815) ‘Greece: a Poem in Three Parts …by Wm. Haygarth’ Monthly Review, N.S., vol. 77, p. 280.
Anonymous (1827) ‘Walsmouth’s Hellenic Antiquities’, Monthly Review, third series, vol. 4, p. 458.
G. Grote (1826) ‘Fasti hellenici’, Westminster Review, vol. 5, p. 280. Also quoted in I. Morris (1994) ‘Archaeologies of Greece’, in Ian Morris (ed.) Classical Greece: Ancient Histories and Modern Archaeologies (Cambridge) p. 30.
’Caesar’s proceedings in Gaul are sufficiently familiar to enable us to treat them with a sort of contempt….’ G.A. A’ Beckett (1852) Comic History of Rome (London) p. 299.
J.A. Froude (1855) ‘Suggestions on the best Means of teaching English History’, Oxford Essays 1855 (London) p. 48. He still supported classical education, providing that it did not lead to the exclusion of English literature and history. Ibid., p. 58.
A. Trollope (1870) Commentaries of Caesar, Ancient Classics for English Readers (Philadelphia) p. 9.
S. Medcalf (1993) ‘Horace’s Kipling,’ in C. Martindale (ed.) Horace made new: Horatian influences on British writing from the Renaissance to the twentieth century (New York) pp. 217–39.
Horace, Odes iii.5 in (1861) The Odes of Horace, translated by T. Martin (Boston). R. Kipling ‘Regulus’ in (1917) A Diversity of Creatures (New York) p. 134. See Medcalf, ‘Horace’s Kipling’, p. 225. R. Jenkyns (1992) Dignity and Decadence (London) p. 2.
Stray, Classics Transformed, p. 47, following H. Nevinson (1912) Between the Acts (London).
G.N. Curzon (1900) ‘Speech given on 28 October, 1898’, Speeches by Lord Curzon of Keddleston, vol. 1, 1898–1900 (Calcutta) p. iv.
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Hagerman, C.A. (2013). Classical Education and Britain’s Imperial Elite. In: Britain’s Imperial Muse. Britain and the World. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137316424_2
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