Introduction

Abstract

Napoleon Bonaparte was brought to power by a coup engineered from within the Directorial government on 9–10 November 1799 (18–19 Brumaire, year VIII, according to the Revolutionary Calendar). Napoleon was one of three Consuls, the others being Ducos and Sieyès. The latter, a veteran of Revolutionary politics, had designed the new constitution to provide a stronger executive than the five man Directory, whose membership rotated frequently; the new constitution reduced the power of the legislative bodies. Ducos and Sieyès were soon replaced by Lebrun, a financial expert, and the jurist, Cambacérès; Talleyrand, an ex-noble, became Foreign Minister; Napoleon's brother, Lucien, was Minister of the Interior; the powerful Ministry of General Police was entrusted to Joseph Fouchè. These senior appointments reflected the twin policies of ‘amalgamation’ and ‘rallying’ pursued by the regime, designed to reconcile the Royalist and Republican factions to Napoleon and to involve them directly in government. In February 1800 the first plebiscite was held to confirm the new constitution; 1,280,000 voted ‘yes’, while 1,250 rejected it. Plebiscites were used again by Napoleon to confirm key decisions, notably in 1802 (year X) for the election of Napoleon as Consul for Life, and in 1804 (year XII) for the transition from Republic to Empire, with 2,500,000 ‘for’ to 1,400 opposed.