Abstract
The task we have set for ourselves is to provide an introduction to the range of historical and social science scholarly literature that addresses the global diasporas of Portuguese-speaking people and the formation of a Lusophone world.2 Our chapter is organised chronologically to reflect the three principal phases of this long history, beginning with Portuguese expansion up to the end of the 18th century, continuing through the second and third Portuguese Empires, and concluding with the period following the end of the corporatist state in Portugal. Since we are historians, our approach to the subject matter is primarily historical and historiographical, although the most recent work tends to be sociological or anthropological. Since we are, however, well aware of the fact that not all subjects of the former Portuguese colonial empire speak Portuguese, our survey transcends Lusophonia to include such non-Lusophone diasporic communities. In general, however, while we include the Atlantic African islands in our analysis, except where noted in the text, we make no systematic attempt to discuss migrations by African colonial subjects of Portugal or African citizens of those postcolonial nation-states. Thus, although we use both Luspohone and Portuguese in the body of the text, the title of our chapter refers to Portuguese diasporas to indicate the range of migrations we discuss, rather than assuming there to be a monolithic Portuguese diaspora.
The importance of the Portuguese diaspora cannot be overemphasized.1
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Notes
Newitt, M. (2005), A History of Portuguese Expansion, 1400–1668, Routledge, London and New York, p. 255.
For a very good short critical review of Asia, see van Veen, E. (2000), Decay or Defeat? An Inquiry into the Portuguese Decline in Asia 1580–1645, Research School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies, Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, pp. 3–7;
for an excellent bibliographical review that focuses on Portuguese settlement before the 19th century, see Russell-Wood, A. J. R. (2007), ‘Patterns of Settlement in the Portuguese Empire, 1400–1800’, in Bethencourt, F. and Curto, D. R. (eds.), Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 190–196.
See, i.a., Santos, J. M. dos (1989), Os Açores nos Séculos XV e XVI, Secretaria Regional da Educação e Cultura, Direcção Regional dos Assuntos Culturais, Universidade dos Açores, Centro de Estudos Gaspar Frutuoso;
Pinto, M. L. R., and Rodrigues, T. M. F. (1993), ‘Aspectos do povoamento das ilhas da Madeira e Pôrto Santo nos séculos XV e XVI’, in Actas: III Colóquio Internacional de História da Madeira, Funchal, pp. 403–471; Matos, A. T. de (ed.) (2005), A colonização Atlântica, vol. 3, tomes 1 and 2, in Serrão, J., and Marques, A. H. de Oliveira (eds.), Nova História da Expansão Portuguesa, Editorial Estampa, Lisbon.
Godinho, V. M. (1978), ‘L’émigration portugaise (xve–xxe siècles): Une constante structurelle et les réponses aux changements du monde’, Revista de História Económica e Social 1, pp. 5–32.
Subrahmanyam, S. (1993), The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500–1700, Longman, New York, for the early 16th century, see especially chapter 9.
For an interesting collection of biographies that focus on individual officials without neglecting the complexities of the Portuguese presence, see McPherson, K., and Subrahmanyam, S. (eds.) (2005), From Biography to History: Essays in the History of Portuguese Asia (1500–1800), Transbooks, New Delhi.
See also, Cruz, M. A. L. (1986), ‘Exiles and Renegades in Portuguese India’, Indian Economic and Social History Review 23, no. 3, pp. 249–262.
Pieroni, G. (2000), Os excluidos do reino: A Inquisição portuguesa e o degredo para o Brasil colónia, Editora Universidade de Brasília & Imprensa Oficial do Estado, Brasília & São Paulo;
Pieroni, G. (2000), Vadios e Ciganos, heréticos e bruxas: Os degregdados no Brasil-colónia, Bertrand Brasil, Rio de Janeiro;
and Pieroni, G. (2003), Banidos: A Inquisição e a lista dos cristãos-novos condenados a viver no Brasil, Bertrand Brasil, Rio de Janeiro. Our thanks to James Sweet for bringing Pieroni’s work to our attention.
Disney, A. R. (2009), History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 50–52, 172–200.
Russell-Wood, ‘Patterns of Settlement,’ p. 165. A valuable collection of articles covering many of these themes is Coates, T. (2007), ‘The Evolution of the Portuguese Atlantic’ (a special thematic issue in honor of Ursula Lamb), Portuguese Studies Review 15, nos. 1–2.
Alemán, I. R. (2007), Emigrantes de Origen Extranjero en Málaga (1564–1700), Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, ch. 6, ‘El desplazamiento Portugués hacia Málaga,’ pp. 73–.
See Boxer, C. R. (1975), Mary and Misogyny: Women in Iberian Expansion Overseas 1415–1825: Some Facts, Fancies and Personalities, Duckworth, London.
See also the more partisan approach of Sanceau, E. (1979), Mulheres Portuguesas no Ultramar, Livraria Civilização, Porto.
Nazzani, M. (1998), ‘Parents and Daughters: Change in the Practice of Dowry in São Paulo (1600–1770),’
and Metcalf, A. (1998), ‘Women and Means: Women and Family Property in Colonial Brazil,’ both in Silva, M. B. Nizza da (ed.) (1998), Families in the Expansion of Europe, 1500–1800, Ashgate Variorum, Aldershot, pp. 1–27 and 159–180.
Coates, Convicts and Orphans; Silva, M. B. Nizza da (2002), Donas e Plebias na sociedade colonial, Editorial Estampa, Lisbon;
Maria, E. (2002), Women in Portuguese Goa (1510–1835), Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, Tellicherry.
See also Silva, M. B. Nizza da (1998), História da Familia no Brasil Colonial, Nova Fronteira, Rio de Janeiro, which includes consideration of early settlement and royal schemes to settle families in Brazil.
Studnicki-Gizbert, D. (2007), A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 54–55.
Metcalf, A. C. (2005), Go-betweens and the Colonization of Brazil, 1500–1600, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Isaacman, A. F. (1972), Mozambique: The Africanization of a European Institution — the Zambesi Prazos, 1750–1902, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, especially pp. 56–63;
Newitt, M. (1973), Portuguese Settlement on the Zambesi. Longman, Harlow.
Boxer, C. R. (1965), Portuguese Society in the Tropics: The Municipal Councils of Goa, Macao, Bahia, and Luanda, 1510–1800, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, pp. 8, 30, 112–113; Boxer, Portuguese Seaborne Empire, pp. 266–272, 281, 293, 331, 333–334, 336–337. This attention remains in the most recent surveys by Newitt, History of Portuguese Expansion, and Disney, History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, vol. 2, as well as the collection coedited by Bethencourt and Curto, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion; see the entries ‘Jews’ and ‘New Christians’ in all three.
See, especially, Levi’s introduction, ‘The Sephardic Diaspora in Europe and Beyond: The Case of Portuguese Jewry,’ pp. 1–11, which has a valuable set of references, and his chapter, ‘“Out of Brazil”: The Key Role of the Sephardim in (Trans) Atlantic Trade before and after 1654,’ pp. 91–127. See also Ben Ur, A. (2006), ‘Distingués des autres Juifs: Les Sépharades des Caraïbes,’ in Trigano, S. (ed.), Le Monde Sépharade. Éditions du Seuil, Paris, vol. 1, pp. 279–328.
See also Tavim, J. A. R. da Silva (2008), ‘In the Shadow of Empire: Portuguese Jewish Communities in the Sixteenth Century,’ in Brockey, L. M. (ed.), Portuguese Colonial Cities in the Early Modern World, Ashgate, Farnham, Surrey, and Burlington, VT, pp. 17–39.
Garwich, A. (1987), Los Cristianos nuevos portugueses y la economía de la colonia, Sociedade Argentina de Historiadores, Buenos Aires.
See Discussion Log for ‘Jews in São Tomé’ in the March 2008 log of H-Luso Africa and Sousa, I. B. de (2008), São Tomé et Principe de 1485 à 1755: Une société coloniale, du Blanc au Noir, L’Harmattan, Paris, pp. 24–29 (on European settlers) and 207–214 (on demography); see also notice of a 11 March 2008 lecture by Tobias Green (Birmingham University) at the Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino in Lisbon, ‘Os Cristãos Novos e a Crioulização em Cabo Verde e nos Rios da Guiné, Séculos XVI–XVII,’ at http://www2.iict.pot/?idc=138&idi=12998.
Mark, P., and Horta, J. da Silva (2011), The Forgotten Diaspora: Jewish Communities in West Africa and the Creation of the Atlantic World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. For New Christian/Jews in the building of a colonial state apparatus in Cape Verde, see Cohen, Z. (2005), ‘Cabo Verde: Da crioulização do homen à crioulização do aparelho de estado,’ Revista Científica. Revista de Estudos — Universidade de Cabo Verde, no. 0, pp. 7–16.
See, e.g., Havik, P. J., and Newitt, M. (eds.) (2007), Creole Societies in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, Lusophone Studies 6, Seagull/Faoileán, Bristol.
Freyre, G. (1933), Casa grande e senzala, Maia and Schmidt, Rio de Janeiro, and many subsequent editions in numerous languages. The featured theme of Lusotopie 1997 4, is ‘Lusotropicalisme. Idéologies coloniales et identités nationales dans les mondes lusophones’ (Couto, D., Enders, A., and Léonard, Y., eds.), and for a definitive critique,
see Castelo, C. (1998), ‘O modo português de estar no mundo’: O luso-tropicalismo e o ideologia colonial portuguesa (1933–1961), Edições Afrontamento, Porto.
See Taunay, A. de Escragnolle (1926–50), História geral das bandeiras paulistas, 11 vols., Typ. Ideal, H. L. Canton, São Paulo; Taunay, E. (1951), História das bandeiras paulistas, Edições Melhoramentos, São Paulo; Cortesão, J. (1958), Rapôso Tavares e a formação territorial do Brasil, 2 vols., Ministério da Educação e Cultura, Serviço e Documentação, Rio de Janeiro; and Cortesão, J. (1964), Introdução à historia das bandeiras, 2 vols, Portugalia, Lisbon. See also Morse, R. (ed.) (1965), The Bandeirantes: The Historical Role of the Brazilian Pathfinders, Knopf, New York.
Rodney, W. (1970), A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545–1800, Clarendon Press, Oxford;
Boulègue, J. (1972), Les Luso-Africains de Sénégambie, xvie–xixe siècles, Université de Dakar, Dakar;
Brooks, G. E. (1980), Luso-African Commerce and Settlement in the Gambia and Guinea-Bissau Region, Working Papers, no. 24, African Studies Center, Boston University, Brookline, MA;
Mark, P. (2002), ‘Portuguese’ Style and Luso-African Identity: Precolonial Senegambia, Sixteenth–Nineteenth Centuries, Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
See also the paper by Green, T. (2010) ‘L’évolution d’une identité “africaine” parmi les lançados de la Haute-Guinée du xvie siècle’ for the Paris conference noted in footnote 3 above.
For a different approach to the process of Atlanticisation in this period and one that focuses on African women traders, see Havik, P. J. (2004), Silences and Soundbites: The Gendered Dynamics of Trade and Brokerage in the Pre-Colonial Guinea Bissau Region, Lit Verlag, Münster.
See, e.g., Heintze, B. (2002), ‘Angola under Portuguese Rule: How It All Began. Settlement and Economic Policy, 1570–1607,’ in Tavares, A. P., and Santos, C. Madeira (eds.), Monumenta Africae–a Apropriação da Escrita pelos Africanos, Fundação Portugal África, Lisbon, pp. 509–535;
Santos, C. M. (2008), ‘Luanda: A Colonial City between Africa and the Atlantic, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,’ in Brockey (ed.), Portuguese Colonial Cities, pp. 249–272;
Ferreira, R. A. (2012), Atlantic Microhistory: Slaving, Transatlantic Networks, and Cultural Exchange in Angola (ca. 1700–ca. 1830), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, and numerous articles by this author. For an important unpublished paper on the larger issue of what is meant by ‘Luso-African’,
see Florescu, M. (2010), ‘Cultural Identities in Historical Perspective: The Case of Northern Angola,’ presented at the Paris conference noted in footnote 3 above.
McPherson, K. (1987), ‘A Secret People of South Asia. The Origins, Evolution and Role of the Luso-Indian Goan Community from the Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries,’ Itinerario 11, no. 2, pp. 72–86.
McPherson, K. (1999), ‘Trade and Traders in the Bay of Bengal: Fifteenth to Nineteenth Centuries,’ in Mukherjee, R., and Subramanian, L. (eds.), Politics and Trade in the Indian Ocean: Essays in Honour of Ashin Das Gupta, Oxford University Press, Delhi and Oxford, pp. 183–209;
Barnard, T. P. (2004), ‘Mestizos as Middlemen: Tomas Días and His Travels in Eastern Sumatra,’ in Borschberg, P. (ed.), Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka Area (16th to 18th Century), Fundação Oriente, Lisbon, pp. 147–160;
Fernando, F. (2004), ‘Metamorphosis of the Luso-Asian Diaspora in the Malay Archipelago,’ in ibid., pp. 161–184;
Lopes, M. de J dos Martires, and Matos, P. L. (2006), ‘Naturais, reinóis e luso-descendentes: A socialização consequida,’ in Lopes, M. de J. dos Martires (ed.), O Império Oriental, 1660–1820, vol. 5:2 of Serrão and Marques (eds.), Nova História, pp. 15–70.
See, e.g., Rodrigues, J. D. (1996), ‘O Arquipélago dos Açores: A Sociedade,’ in Matos (ed.), A colonização Atlântica, vol. 3:1, pp. 446–491;
Silva, M. B. Nizza da (1992), ‘Sociedade, Instituições e Cultura,’ in Johnson, H., and Silva, M. B. Nizza da (eds.), O Império Luso-Brasileiro 1500–1620, vol. 6, pp. 303–551, in Serrão and Marques (eds.), Nova História da Expansão Portuguesa;
Souza, L. de Melo e (1986), O Diablo e a Terra da Santa Cruz: Feitiçaria e religiosidade popular no Brasil colonial, Companhia das Letras, São Paulo.
Cf. Reid, A. (2000), ‘Early Southeast Asian Categorizations of Europeans,’ in Reid, A. (ed.), Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, pp. 155–180.
For a different approach to the question of seeing ‘the other,’ see Prestholdt, J. (2001), ‘Portuguese Conceptual Categories and the “Other” Encounter on the Swahili Coast,’ Journal of Asian and African Studies 36, no. 4, pp. 383–406.
Wenyuan, C. (2002), ‘Compilação de Dados Históricos sobre Portugal e Macau no Registo da Dinastia Ming,’ Revista da Cultura 2, pp. 108–129;
Kaijian, T. (2002), ‘Referências Históricas Relativas a Macau nos Relatórios de Cantão,’ Revista da Cultura 2, pp. 130–144;
and Yingxia T. (2002), ‘Apontamentos de Visitas a Macau durante as Dinastias Ming e Qing,’ Revista da Cultura 2, pp. 145–160;
Jinglian, L. (2003), ‘As Relações Sino-Portuguesas durante a Dinastia Qing através dos Ofícios das Chapas Sínicas,’ Revista da Cultura 8, pp. 112–130.
Russell-Wood, ‘Patterns of Settlement,’ p. 194, citing Rossa, W. (1997), Cidades Indo-Portuguesa: Contribuições para o estudo do urbanismo português no Hindustão Ocidental / Indo-Portuguese Cities: A Contribution to the Study of Portuguese Urbanism in Western Hindustan, Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, Lisbon.
See also Porter, J. (1996), Macau the Imaginary City: Culture and Society, 1557 to the Present, Westview Press, Boulder, CO;
and chapters by Pereira, A. N. (1997), ‘Goan and Christian Architecture of the 16th Century,’ in Borges, C., and Feldmann, H. (eds.), Portugal and Goa: Their Cultural Links, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi,
and by Carita, H. (2001), ‘Hindu Tradition of the Vastu Shastra in Indo-Portuguese Architecture,’ in Mathew, K. S., Souza, T. R. de, and Melakandathil, P. (eds.), The Portuguese and the Socio-Cultural Changes in India, 1500–1800, Fundação Oriente and Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, MESHAR, Tellicherry, pp. 205–222.
Mark, ‘Portuguese’ Style; Marreiros, C. (2002), ‘A Arquitectura Mista e a Urbanização,’ Revista da Cultura 3, pp. 7–41.
Macedo, C. L. de (1961), Presencia e integración portuguesa en el Río de la Plata, Nascimento, Santiago de Chile;
Lewin, B. (1980), ‘Los portugueses en Buenos Aires en el período colonial,’ in VI Congresso Internacional de Historia de América, Academia Nacional de Historia, Buenos Aires, vol. 4, pp. 47–62;
Saguier, E. (1985), ‘The Social Impact of a Middleman Minority in a Divided Host Society: The Case of the Portuguese in Early Seventeenth Century Buenos Aires,’ Hispanic American Historical Review 65, no. 3, pp. 467–491;
Reitano, E. (2006), ‘La immigración antes de la immigración: Buenos Aires y el movimiento migratorio portugués en el espacio atlántico en ellargo siglo XVIII,’ Portuguese Studies Review 14, no. 2, pp. 1–37;
and Reitano, E. (2005), ‘Los portugueses del Buenos Aires tardocolonial: Immigración, sociedad, familia, vida cotidiana y religion,’ Ph.D. dissertation, Universidad Nacional de la Plata. As well, there is Garwich’s book on Portuguese New Christians, noted above.
For example, we have not spoken about the end of Portuguese colonisation in Morocco, which provoked a very original migration: the ‘transfer’ of Mazagão, from the last Portuguese fortified city on the Moroccan coast, to the Brazilian Amazonia. See Vidal L. (2008), Mazagão, la ville qui traversa l’Atlantique. Du Maroc à l’Amazonie, 1769–1783, Flammarion, Paris.
See Bretell, C. B. (1977–1978), ‘Annotated Bibliography: Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Portuguese Emigration,’ Portuguese Studies Newsletter 3, pp. 7–18;
Rocha-Trinidade, M. B., and Arroteia, J. (1984), Bibliografia da Emigração Portuguesa, Instituto Português de Ensino a Distância, Lisbon.
Portuguese emigration is also noted in Marques, A. H. de Oliveira (1972), History of Portugal, vol. 2: From Empire to Corporate State, Columbia University Press, New York and London, pp. 82–83, 120, 200–201, 223, 241.
Baganha, M. I. (2003), ‘From Closed to Open Doors: Portuguese Emigration under the Corporatist Regime,’ e-JPH 1, pp. 1–16.
Martinho, L. M., and Gorenstein, R. (1993), Negociantes e Caixeiros na Sociedade da Independência, Secretaria Municipal de Cultura, Turismo e Esportes, Rio de Janeiro.
Volpi Scott, A. S. (2006), ‘Migração Portuguesa para São Paulo na segunda metade do século XIX: Um estudo de caso,’ paper presented at the XV Encontro Nacional de Estudos de População, Caxambo MG, at http://www.abep.nepo.unicamp.br/encontro2006/docspdf/ABEP2006_481.pdf,
and, with Truzzi, O. M. S. (2006), ‘Redes de conterrâneos: A Imigração de Lousanenses ao Brasil imperial,’ Portuguese Studies Review 14, no. 2, pp. 39–61.
Verdasco, J. (1997), Raízes da Nação Brasileira: Os Portugueses no Brasil, IBRASA, São Paulo.
Governo do Estado do São Paulo (1999), Imigração Portuguesa no Brasil, Memorial do Imigrante/Museu da Imigração, São Paulo.
Menezes, L. Medeiros de (2000), ‘Jovens Portugueses: Histórias de Trabalho, Histórias de Sucessos, História de Fracassos,’ in Gomes, A. de Castro (ed.), Histórias de Imigrantes e de Imigração no Rio de Janeiro, Viveiros de Castro Editora, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 164–182.
Paulo, H. (2006), ‘O exílio português no Brasil: Os “Budas” e a opposição antisalazarista,’ Portuguese Studies Review 14, no. 2, pp. 125–142.
See also Morón, G. (1992), ‘Los Portugueses en Venezuela’ in I Encontro das Academias de História da Venezuela e de Portugal, Academia Portuguesa de História, Lisbon, pp. 37–43;
Abreu Xavier, A. de (2007), Con Portugal en la maleta: Histórias de vida de los portugueses en Venezuela: Siglo XX. Caracas: Alfa For religious topics,
see Gama, M. da Encarnação Nobrega da (2001) (with Garrett F. de Almeida, photogr.), Padrões da fé: Erguidos pela comunidade portuguesa na Venezuela: Achegas para a historia, Funchal: Editorial Eco do Funchal;
as well as some recent unpublished studies which show the beginning of a renewed interest in Portugal in this community: Costa, J. Torres (1997), ‘Percurso com regresso(s). Estratégias e trajectórias sociais num percurso local da emigração para Venezuela,’ MA dissertation, Universidade Aberta, Porto;
Costa, M. de la Assuncion da Silva Faria (2002), ‘A comunidade portuguesa na Venezuela: Integração e retorno ao país de origem,’ MA dissertation, Universidade Aberta, Porto;
Silva do Nascimento, J. da (2009), ‘Emigração madeirense para a Venezuela (1940–1974),’ MA dissertation, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal.
For publications based partly on his dissertation research, see Borges, M. J. (2003), ‘Network Migration, Marriage Patterns, and Adaptation in Rural Portugal and among Portuguese Immigrants in Argentina, 1870–1980,’ The History of the Family: An International Quarterly 8, no. 3, pp. 445–479;
Borges, M. J. (2003), ‘Many Americas: Patterns of Transatlantic Migration and Choice of Destination in Southern Portugal (19th–20th Centuries),’ Studi Emigrazione / Migration Studies 40, no. 150, pp. 351–375;
and Borges, M. J. (2006), ‘Portuguese Migration in Argentina: Transatlantic Networks and Local Experiences,’ Portuguese Studies Review 14, no. 2, pp. 87–123.
Menezes, M. N. (1994), Scenes from the History of the Portuguese in Guyana, M. N. Menezes, London;
and Menezes, M. N. (1994), The Portuguese of Guyana: A Study in Culture and Conflict, M. N. Menezes, London.
Ciski, R. (1979), ‘The Vincentian Portuguese: A Study in Ethnic Group Adaptation’, PhD dissertation, University of Massachusetts;
Thomas, A. (1999–2000), ‘Portuguese and Indian Immigration to St. Vincent (1845–1890),’ Journal of Caribbean Studies 14, nos. 1–2, pp. 41–59;
Ribeiro, J. M. (2006), A emigração de madeirenses para as Ilhas de São Vicente nas Antilhas, Editorial Calcamar, Funchal.
Ferreira, J.-A. S. (1994), The Portuguese of Trinidad and Tobago: Portrait of an Ethnic Minority, Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine;
Ferreira, J.-A. S. (1999), ‘The Portuguese Language in Trinidad and Tobago: A Study of Language Shift and Language Death’, PhD dissertation, University of the West Indies at St. Augustine;
Ferreira, J.-A. S. (2003), ‘Preliminary Bibliography on the Madeiran Presbyterians: From Madeira to Trinidad and the U.S.,’ http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~madeira/jobiblio.htm;
Ferreira, J.-A. S. (2006), ‘Madeiran Portuguese Migration to Guyana, St. Vincent, Antigua and Trinidad,’ Portuguese Studies Review 14, no. 2, pp. 63–85.
Ferreira, E. de Sousa (ed.) (1977), O Poder Europeu — 1: A emigração portuguesa e o seu contexto internacional, Iniciativas editoriais, Lisbon, especially chapters by the editor, ‘Actualidade e perspectivas da emigração portuguesa no contexto europeu,’ pp. 11–27,
and by Poinard, M. and Roux, M. (1977), ‘Os casos português e jugoslavo: A emigração contra a desenvolvimento,’ pp. 31–66, as well as appendices 1 and 2.
Pereira, V. (2002), ‘L’État portugais et les Portugais en France de 1958 à 1974,’ Lusotopie 14, no. 2, pp. 9–27, and Pereira, V. (2005), ’La politique d’émigration de l’Estado Novo entre 1958 et 1974’, Cahiers de l’Urmis [online], no. 9, http://urmis.revues.org/index31;
Pereira, V. (2007), ‘L’État Portugais et les Portugais en France de 1957 à 1974,’ PhD dissertation, Institut d’Études Politiques de Paris.
Volovitch-Tavares, M.-C., and Stonesco, D. (2007), ‘Portuguese Immigrants and Portuguese Culture in France,’ Museum International 59, nos. 1–2, pp. 30–40;
Santos, I. S. dos (2004), ‘The Descendants of Migrants in France: Bonds with Home Country and Belonging,’ AEMI Journal 2, pp. 173–184. An early reflection of the Portuguese presence and of the nostalgic power of Portuguese culture for that community in Paris can be found in the 1957 concert by the great fadista Amalia Rodrigues at the Paris Olympic, Columbia 33CSX-11.
Villalobos, A. (2007), ‘A Minority within a Minority: The Portuguese Entrepreneurs of Paris,’ Immigration Here and There, Northwestern University Medill School of Journalism, http://www.immigrationhereandthere.org/2007/05/a_minority_within_a_minority_t.php.
Green, T. (2010), ‘The Evolution of a Creole Identity in Cape Verde,’ in Cohen, R. A., and Toninato, P. (eds.), The Creolization Reader: Studies in Mixed Identities and Cultures, Routledge, London, pp. 157–167.
For problems of assimilation and identity in colonial Mozambique, see Penvenne, J. M. (1989), ‘“We Are All Portuguese!”: Challenging the Political Economy of Assimilation, Lourenço Marques, 1870 to 1933,’ in Vail, L. (ed.), The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa, University of California, Berkeley, pp. 255–288,
and Penvenne, J. M. (1996), ‘João dos Santos Albasini (1876–1922); The Contradictions of Politics and Identity in Colonial Mozambique,’ Journal of African History 37, no. 3, pp. 417–464.
Carling, J., and Åkesson, L. (2009), ‘Mobility at the Heart of a Nation: Patterns and Meanings of Cape Verdean Migration,’ International Migration (special issue on migration in the Lusophone world) 47, no. 3, pp. 123–155.
See also Nascimento, A. (2002), Vidas de S. Tomé segundo vozes de Soncente, Ilhéu Editora, Praia,
and Nascimento, A. (2007), O fim do caminho longi, Ilhéu Editora, Praia.
Maffia, M. M. (2010), ‘Migration and Identity of Cape Verdeans and Their Descendants in Argentina,’ African and Black Diaspora: An International Journal 3, no. 2, pp. 169–180.
Rosa, V. Pereira da, and Trigo, S. (1994), Azorean Emigration: A Preliminary Overview, Imprensa da Universidade Fernando Pessoa, Porto.
Cahen, M. (1995), ‘À la recherche de la nation. Le congrès des cadres capverdiens de la diaspora,’ Lusotopie 2, pp. 69–74.
See also Baganha, M. (1991), ‘The Social Mobility of Portuguese Immigrants in the United States at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century,’ International Migration Review 25, no. 2, pp. 277–302.
See also Lopes, M. L. (2005), Cape Verdean Americans in Rhode Island, Arcadia, Charleston.
See, e.g., Warrin, D. (2010), So Ends This Day: The Portuguese in American Whaling, 1765–1927, Center for Portuguese Studies and Culture, Portuguese in America Series, Dartmouth, MA.
Teixeira, C., and Lavigne, G. (1992), The Portuguese in Canada: A Bibliography/ Les Portugais au Canada: Une bibliographie, Institute for Social Research, York University, Toronto.
See also Higgs, D. (1990), Portuguese Migration in Global Perspective, Multicultural History Society of Ontario, Toronto, in which most chapters focus on Canada.
See Clarence-Smith, W. G. (1985), The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825–1975, Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Bastos, C. (2008), ‘Migrants, Settlers and Colonists: The Biopolitics of Displaced Bodies’, International Migration 46, pp. 27–54.
Nascimento, A. (2002), Desterro e Contrato: Moçambicanos a Caminho de S. Tomé e Principé (Anos 1940 a 1960), Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, Maputo.
For an early study, see Ross, D. A. (1965), ‘The Career of Domingo Martinez in the Bight of Biafra 1833–64,’ Journal of African History 6, no. 1, pp. 79–90,
but the classic study is Verger, P. (1968), Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Bénin et Bahia de Todos os Santos, du xviie au xixe siècle, Mouton, Paris and The Hague;
for more recent treatments, see Krasnovolski A. (1987), Les Afro-Brésiliens dans le processus de changement de la Côte des Esclaves, Zakad Narodowy im. Ossolinkich, Wroclaw;
Yai, O. B. (1997), ‘Les “Aguda” (Afro-Brésiliens) du Golfe du Bénin. Identité, apports, idéologie: Essai de réinterprétation,’ Lusotopie 4, pp. 275–284;
Soumonni, E. (2003), ‘Afro-Brazilian Communities of the Bight of Benin in the Nineteenth Century,’ in Lovejoy, P. E., and Trotman, D.V. (eds.), Trans-Atlantic Dimension of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora, Continuum, London and New York, pp. 11–194;
Law, R. (2004), ‘Francisco Felix de Souza in West Africa, 1820–1849,’
and Strickrodt, S. (2004), ‘“Afro-Brazilians” of the Western Slave Coast in the Nineteenth Century,’ both in Curto, J. C., and Lovejoy, P. E. (eds.), Enslaving Connections: Changing Cultures of Africa and Brazil during the Era of Slavery, Humanity Books, New York, pp. 187–211, 213–244;
and Guran, M. (1999), Agudás: Os ‘brasileiros’ do Benim, Editora Nova Frontera, Rio de Janeiro,
and Guran, M. (2006), ‘De africanos no Brasil a “brasileiros” na África: Os agudás do Golfo do Benim,’ in Chaves, R., et al. (eds.), Brasil África: Como se o mar fosse mentira, Editora UNESP, São Paulo, pp. 159–178.
Ferreira, A. R. (1985), ‘Moçambique e os naturais da Índia Portuguesa,’ in Albuquerque, L. de, and Guerreiro, I. (eds.), Actas do II Seminário Internacional de História Indo-Portuguesa, Instituto de Investigação Cientifica Troplical/Centro de Estudos de História e Cartografia Antiga, Lisbon, pp. 615–648;
Leite, J. Pereira, (1996), ‘Diáspora Indiana em Moçambique,’ Economia Global e Gestão 2, pp. 67–108;
Karnik, S. S. (1998), ‘Goans in Mozambique,’ Africa Quarterly 38, no.3, pp. 96–118. See also the short article by Mudenge, I. S. G. (1984), ‘Goans in the Zambezi Valley,’ Purabhilekh-Puratatva 1, no. 2.
There is nothing comparable for Goans like the outstanding study of Gujarati Hindu vania merchants by Machado, P. A. da Silva Rupino (2005), ‘Gujarati Indian Merchant Networks in Mozambique, 1777–c.1830,’ unpublished PhD dissertation, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
Frenz, M. (2008), Lusotopie 15, no. 1, pp. 183–202. The references to her unpublished works are at 200, n. 57.
Teixeira, L. Pinto (2008), ‘Partners in Business: The Workings of the Indian Traders of Zambezia, Mozambique, 1870s–1910s,’ Lusotopie 15, no. 1, pp. 39–58.
Pinto, R. (2007), ‘Race and Imperial Loss: Accounts of East Africa in Goa,’ South African Historical Journal 57, pp. 82–92, quoted from p. 91.
See also Prinz, M. (1997), ‘Intercultral Links between Goa and Mozambique in Their Colonial and Contemporary History,’ in Borges and Feldmann (eds.), Goa and Portugal, pp. 111–127.
Gupta, P. (2007), ‘Mapping Portuguese Recolonisation in the Indian Ocean: A Research Agenda,’ South African Historical Journal 57, pp. 93–112, quoted from pp. 105–106.
For more on this project, see Gupta, P. (2009), ‘The Disquieting of History: Portuguese (De)colonization and Goan Migration in the Indian Ocean,’ Journal of Asian and African Studies 44, no. 1, pp. 19–47.
In Borschberg, P. (ed.) (2004), Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka Area and Adjacent Regions (16th to 18th Century), Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden & Fundação Oriente, Lisbon.
Cabral, J. de Pina (2002), Between China and Europe: Person, Culture and Emotion in Macao, Continuum, New York;
Sarkissian, M. (2002), ‘Playing Portuguese: Constructing Identity in Malaysia’s Portuguese Community,’ Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 11, no. 2, pp. 215–32.
Rocha-Trinidade, M. B. (2005), ‘Portugal: Destination Countries for Emigrants; Immigrants[’] Countries of Origin,’ AEMI Journal 3, pp. 76–89.
Cf. Klimt, A., and Lubkemann, S. (2002), ‘Argument across the Portuguese-Speaking World: A Discursive Approach to Diaspora,’ Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 11, no. 2, pp. 145–162.
See also Carrington, W. J., and Lima, P. J. de (1996), ‘The Impact of 1970’s Repatriates from Africa on the Portuguese Labor Market,’ Industrial and Labor Relations Review 49, pp. 330–347.
Lubkemann, S. C. (2003), ‘Race, Class, and Kin in the Negotiation of “internal strangerhood” among Portuguese Retornados, 1975–2000,’ in Smith, A. L. (ed.), Europe’s Invisible Migrants, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, pp. 75–93;
see also Lubkemann, S. C. (2002), ‘The Moral Economy of Portuguese Postcolonial Return,’ Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 11, no. 2, pp. 163–188;
Øien, C. (2009), ‘Of Homecomings and Homesickness: The Question of Retornados and White Angolans in Postcolonial Portugal,’ presented at the conference ‘Africans in Europe in the Long Twentieth Century: Transnationalism, Translation and Transfer,’ Liverpool; an abstract is available at http://www.liv.ac.uk/soclas/confer-ences/AFE/abstracts2.htm.
See also Rui Penas Pires (1999), ‘O regresso das colonias,’ in Bethencourt, F., and Chauduri, K. (eds.), História da expansão portuguesa, vol. 5, Circulo dos Leitores, Lisbon, pp. 182–196, 212–213.
Klimt, A 2003, ‘Do National Narratives Matter? Identity Formation among Portuguese Migrants in France and Germany’, in Ohliger, R et al (eds), European Encounters: Migrants, Migration and European Societies since 1945, Ashgate, Aldershot & Burlington, VT, pp. 255–278
and Klimpt, A 2006, ‘Divergent Trajectories: Identity and Community among Portuguese in Germany and the United States’, Portuguese Studies Review, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 211–240.
See also Melo, P. M. (1997), ‘The Life History of Portuguese Return Migrants: A Canadian-Azorean Case Study,’ MA diss., York University.
Barrow, C. W. (ed.) (2002), Portuguese-Americans and Contemporary Civic Culture in Massachusetts, Center for Portuguese Studies and Culture, Portuguese in America Series, Dartmouth, MA.
Rocha-Trinidade, M. B. (2007), ‘Cultural Issues in Portuguese Migrations: Tokens of Identity,’ AEMI Journal 5, pp. 140–152.
Matos, E. D. (2009), ‘Post-Colonial Portuguese Migration to Mozambique: An Examination of Causes, Effects and Future Implications for Development,’ International Migration 47, no. 3, pp. 157–184;
Rosa, V. Pereira da, and Trigo, S. (1986), Portugueses e moçambicanos no apartheid: da fcção à realidade, Secretaria de Estado das Comunidades Portuguesas, Porto;
Rosa, V. Pereira da, and Trigo, S. (1990), ‘Islands in a Segregated Land: Portuguese in South Africa,’ in Higgs, Portuguese Migration in Global Perspective, pp. 182–199;
Cravinho, J. Gomes (1994), Portugueses na África do Sul: retrato político de uma comunidade emigrante 1990–1994, CIDAC, Lisbon;
Cravinho, J. Gomes (1995), ‘La communauté portugaise dans la nouvelle Afrique du Sud’, Lusotopie 2, pp. 323–348;
Bessa, P. (2009). ‘A Diáspora Invisível? Política e lusitanidade na África do Sul, da descolonização à democratização’, Lusotopie 16, no. 1, pp. 133–153. Finally, in addition to Clive Glaser’s chapter in this book, see Glaser, C., (forthcoming), ‘White but Illegal: Undocumented Madeiran Immigration to South Africa, 1920s–1970s’, Immigrants and Minorities, Vol. 31.
Cadernos Condição Feminina (2005), Mulheres Migrantes: Duas Faces de Uma Realidade: Actas do Seminário, Lisboa, 30 e 31 de Janeiro de 2003, Comissão para Igualdade e Para Os Direitos das Mulheres, Lisbon.
See Rocha-Trinidade, M. B. (2008), ‘Integration Policies for Immigrants in Portugal,’ AEMI Journal 6, no. 7, pp. 20–30.
For an important study of how racial attitudes were formed during the colonial period, see Matos, P. Ferraz de (2006), As Côres do Império: Representações Raciais no Império Colonial Português, Imprensa das Ciências Sociais, Lisbon.
Malheiros, J. Macaísta (1996), Imigrantes na Região de Lisboa: Os Anos da Mudança: Integração e Processo de Integração das Comunidades de Origem Indiana, Edições Colibiri, Lisbon, and Malheiros, J. Macaísta (2000), ‘Circulação migratória e estratégias de inserção local das comunidades católica goesa e ismaelita: Uma interpre-tação a partir de Lisboa,’ Lusotopie, pp. 377–398. Concerning the migration of the Mozambican Ismaili community to Portugal in 1973–1976,
see Melo, A. (2008), ‘A diáspora ismaelita. Preparação e “partida”, vivências da migração dos anos 70,’ Lusotopie 15, no. 1, pp. 97–102; Khouri, N., Pereira Leite, J., and Mascarenhas, M. J. (2008), ‘De l’Ombre à la lumière: Femmes ismaili du Mozambique,’ Revue Outre-Mers, pp. 17–62, 2008; from the same authors, beside their chapter in this book, look for several forthcoming publications about migrations of Ismaili from Gujarat to Mozambique and from Mozambique to Portugal.
Bretell, C. (2006), ‘Portugal’s First Post-Colonials: Citizenship, Identity and the Repatriation of Goans,’ Portuguese Studies Review 14, no. 2, pp. 143–170. See also the website www.goacom.com/casa-de-goa
For a related short study, see Ferreira, M. M., and Cardoso, A. J. (2004), ‘Second Generation Cape Verdean Immigrants in Portugal: Problems of School Integration,’ AEMI Journal 2, pp. 79–85.
Fikes, K. D. (2006), ‘Emigration and the Spatial Production of Difference from Cape Verde,’ in Clarke, K. M., and Thomas, D. A. (eds.), Globalization and Race: Transformations in the Cultural Production of Blackness. Duke University Press, Durham, pp. 154–170. See also Acker, A. (2011), ‘Entre deux drapeaux: Les ouvriers Capverdiens au Portugal pendant la période révolutionnaire (1974–1976)’, Cadernos de Estudos Africanos no. 21, pp. 123–145.
See Khan, Sheila (2009), Imigrantes Africanos Moçambicanos: Narrativa de imigração e de identidade e estratégia de aculturação em Portugal e na Inglaterra. Edições Colibri, Lisboa.
See the important set of six articles published in 2007 under the grouped heading of ‘«Peuple postcolonial» et «nouveaux» immigrants: L’Islam dans le Portugal contemporain,’ Lusotopie 14, no.1, pp. 181–285. For the earlier period, see Von Kemnitz, E. M. (2007), ‘Envoys, Princesses, Seamen, and Captives. The Muslim Presence in Portugal in the 18th and 19th Centuries,’ Lusotopie 14, no. 1, pp. 105–113.
See, e.g., Noivo, E. (2002), ‘Towards a Cartography of Portugueseness: Challenging the Hegemonic Center,’ Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 11, no. 2, pp. 255–275, using Canada and Australia as her examples.
See also Mascarenhas-Keyes, S. (1987), ‘Death Notices and Dispersal: International Migration among Catholics Goans,’ in Eades, J. (ed.), Migrants, Workers, and the Social Order. Tavistock, London, pp. 82–98.
Filho, W. Trajano (2009), ‘The Conservative Aspects of a Centripetal Diaspora: The Case of Cape Verdean Tabancas,’ Africa 79, no. 4, pp. 520–542;
Drotbohm, H. (2009), ‘Horizons of Long Distance Intimacies. Reciprocity, Contribution and Disjuncture in Cape Verde,’ History of the Family: An International Quarterly 14, no. 2, pp. 132–149.
See also Marcelino, P.F. (2011), ‘Processes of Arrival, Integration, and Exclusion: Exploring a New Migratory Corridor in West Africa,’ in Marcelino, P.F. (ed.), Home in Motion: The Shifting Grammars of Self and Stranger, Inter-Disciplinary Press, Oxford.
Nafafé, J. L. (2009), ‘African Migrants: Rethinking Past and Integration in the West Midlands,’ presented at the conference ‘Africans in Europe in the Long Twentieth Century: Transnationalism, Translation and Transfer,’ Liverpool (abstract available at http://www.liv.ac.uk/soclas/conferences/AFE/abstracts2.htm);
Hansing, K. (2008), ‘South-South Migration and Transnational Tiers between Cuba and Mozambique,’ in Smith, M. P., and Eade, J. (eds.), Transnational Ties: Cities, Migrations, and Identities, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ, pp. 77–90. Mozambican connections to Cuba are also the subject of graduate research by Abubakr Fofana, York University, Toronto, Canada.
Oppenheimer, J. (2004), ‘Magermanes. Os trabalhores moçambicanos na antiga República Democrática Alemã’, Lusotopie 11, pp. 85–105 and 2004, ‘Mozambican Worker Migration to the Former German Democratic Republic: Serving Socialism and Struggling under Democracy,’ Portuguese Studies Review 12, no.1, pp. 163–187;
Van Wijk, J. (2010), ‘Luanda-Holanda: Irregular Migration from Angola to the Netherlands,’ International Migration 48, no. 2, pp. 1–30.
Nogueira, A. M. de Moura (2000), ‘No Ritmo da Banda: Histórias da Comunidade Lusa da Ponta d’Areia’, in Gomes (ed.), Histórias de Imigrantes, pp. 183–206.
For her methodology, see Thompson, P. R. (1988), The Voice of the Past: Oral History, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York.
Leal, J. (2002), ‘Identities and Imagined Homelands: Reinventing the Azores in Southern Brazil,’ Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 11, no. 2, pp. 233–254,
Demartini, Z. de Brito Fabri (2006), ‘Trajetórias e identidades múltiplas dos portugueses e luso-africanos em São Paulo após 1974,’ Portuguese Studies Review 14, no. 2, pp. 171–210.
Kaly, A. P. (2001), ‘L’Être noir africain au «Paradis terrestre» brésilien: Un sociologue sénégalais au Brésil,’ Lusotopie 8, pp. 105–121.
Goza, F. (1994), ‘Brazilian Immigration to North America,’ International Migration Review 28, no. 1, pp. 136–152.
See Falconi, J. L., and Mazzoti, J. A. (eds.) (2007), The Other Latinos: Central and South Americans in the United States, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, and London.
Martes, A. C. B. (1999), ‘Os imigrantes Brasileiros e as igrejas em Massachusetts,’ in Martes, A. C. B., et al (eds.), Cenas do Brasil migrante, Bomtempo, São Paulo, which includes several other useful essays on North American Brazilian communities; Assis, G. de Oliveira (2007), ‘Do Governador Valadares e Criciúma: Os novos emigrantes brasileiros rumo aos EUA,’ Nuevo Mundo, Mundos Nuevos, available at http://nuevomundo.revues.org/3754; Siqueira, S. (2007), ‘O sonho frustrado e o sonho realizado: As duas faces da migração para os EUA,’ Nuevo Mundo, Mundos Neuvos, http://nuevomundo.revues.org/5973
Arouck, R. (2000), ‘Des Brésiliens en Guyane française: Nouvelles migrations internationales ou exportation des tensions sociales de l’Amazonie,’ Lusotopie 7, pp. 67–78.
See www.brasileirosnojapao.jp/seminario.php; McKenzie, D., and Salcedo, A. (n.d.), ‘Japanese-Brazilians and the Future of Brazilian Migration to Japan,’ abstract available at http://www.stanford.edu/~salcedo/Research.htm; also Sasaki, E. M. (2002), ‘Dekasseguis: Japanese-Brazilian Immigrants in Japan and the Question of Identity,’ Bulletin of Portuguese-Japanese Studies 4, pp. 111–141;
Nakamizu, E. (2003), ‘Language Contact between Portuguese and Japanese. Functions of Code-Switching in the Speech of Brazilians Living in Japan,’ Bulletin of Portuguese-Japanese Studies 6, pp. 73–91. In addition, see the special issue of Cahiers du Brésil contemporain (Paris, Maison des Sciences de l’homme), no. 71–72, edited by Schpun, M. R. (2008), ‘1908–2008. Le centenaire de l’immigration japonaise au Brésil. L’heure des bilans,’ which includes articles about Japanese Brazilians coming back to Brazil.
Sasaki, E. M. (2009), Dekasseguis: Trabalhadores Migrantes Nipo-Brasileiros no Japão, Texto NEPO 39, Campinas;
Hirano, F. Y. (2008), O Caminho para Casa: O Retorno dos Dekasseguis, Textos NEPO 54, Campinas;
Assis, G. de Oliveira (2002), Estar Aqui, Estar Lá … uma cartografia da vida entre o Brasil e os Estados Unidos, Textos NEPO 41, Campinas;
Fusco, W. (2007), Capital Social e Dinâmica Migratória: Um Estudo sobre Brasileiros nos Estados Unidos, Textos NEPO 52, Campinas;
Pires, R. G. (2007), Diferencias por Sexo no Retorno Migratório: O Fluxo Criciúma-Estados Unidos, Textos NEPO 53, Campinas;
Silva, S. A. da (2008), Faces da Latinidade: Hispano-Americanos em São Paulo, Textos NEPO 55, Campinas.
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Alpers, E.A., Ball, M. (2013). ‘Portuguese’ Diasporas: A Survey of the Scholarly Literature. In: Morier-Genoud, E., Cahen, M. (eds) Imperial Migrations. Migration, Diasporas and Citizenship. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137265005_2
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