Abstract
“Dear me, think of it,” said William Jennings Bryan in 1912, “Niggers speaking French!” At the time, Bryan was Woodrow Wilson’s secre¬tary of state, learning about Haiti, and in charge of US foreign policy toward the country and region.1
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Notes
Bryan quoted in Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 (rev. ed., New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 48.
The story of America’s first occupation of Haiti has been told many times. Scholars have closely examined the social, political, economic, and military dimensions of this intervention. The central literature on Haiti is as follows: Mary A. Renda’s Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001);
Magdaline W. Shannon, Jean Price-Mars, the Haitian Elite and the American Occupation, 1915–1935 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996);
Brenda Gayle Plummer, Haiti and the Great Powers, 1902–1915 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988);
Robert M. Spector, W. Cameron Forbes and the Hoover Commissions to Haiti (1930) (Lanham: University Press of America, 1985);
David Healy, Gunboat Diplomacy in the Wilson Era: The U.S. Navy in Haiti, 1915–1916 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976);
Arthur C. Millspaugh, Haiti under American Control, 1915–1930 (rev. ed., Westport: Negro University Press, 1970);
Emily Greene Balch, ed., Occupied Haiti (rev. ed., New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969);
Dana G. Munro, Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean, 1900–1921 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964);
John A. Vernon, “Racial Gamesmanship and the U.S. Occupation of Haiti: An Illustrative Episode,” Alabama Historical Quarterly 40 (1978), 144–161;
Richard Millett and G. Dale Gaddy, “Administering the Protectorates: The U.S. Occupation of Haiti and the Dominican Republic,” Revista Interamericana 6 (1976), 383–402.
Schmidt’s Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 (hereafter cited as HS ) and Renda’s Taking Haiti remain two of the most comprehensive works on the topic. Despite these and other excellent histories, there have been very few sustained analyses of education during the occupation. Much of the work in this area is atomized and fragmented. Of late, Leon D. Pamphile’s Clash of Cultures: America’s Educational Strategies in Occupied Haiti, 1915–1934 (Lanham: University Press of America, 2008) is the only book-length work that explicitly aims at filling the historiographical gap.
On Bryan’s relationship to the banking industry, see Matthew Simon, “The Hot Money Movement and the Private Exchange Pool Proposal of 1896,” Journal of Economic History 20 (1960), 31–50;
Paola E. Coletta, “William Jennings Bryan and Currency and Banking Reform,” Nebraska History 45 (1964), 31–57; Farnham’s relationship with Bryan recounted in Munro, Intervention , 332ff.
Munro, Intervention , 368–371; HS , 118. Franklin Delano Roosevelt stated in a campaign speech that “I wrote Haiti’s constitution myself, and if I do say it, I think it is a pretty good constitution.” FDR quoted in James McCrocklin, Garde D’ Haiti, 1915–1934: Twenty Years of Organization and Training by the United States Marine Corps (Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1956), 74.
On Forbes’s background and term in the Philippines, see Glenn May, Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial Policy, 1900–1913 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1980), 21, 113. Forbes was also known for working for British, Belgian, and French stockholders of the Brazilian Railway Company from 1914 to 1920 as sole receiver of the operation valued at three hundred million dollars with 38 corporations in five South American countries. In his later years, Forbes vacationed in Honduras where he was a director of the United Fruit Company.
For more on Moton, see William H. Hughes, Robert Russa Moton of Hampton and Tuskegee (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1956).
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© 2012 A. J. Angulo
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Angulo, A.J. (2012). Hampton Creole. In: Empire and Education. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137024534_4
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