Introduction

Abstract

The historical experience of referendums may be characterised by a certain dualism. There are some examples of the successful practice of direct democracy in stable democracies but also many examples of the manipulative abuse of referendums by authoritarian rulers. The political calculations behind the referendums initiated by democratic governments are also often too obvious to avoid cynicism about the institution. Furthermore, the referendum seems to represent a purely majoritarian form of democracy and thus can be perceived as a threat to minorities. On the other hand, the referendum has been seen as an excellent way of increasing citizens’ participation and deliberation on public issues, and the increase of popular participation due to referendums and other directdemocratic institutions has been seen as a step towards the further democratisation of societies.