Abstract
Until now the Persian Gulf has been regarded as a border zone of the Middle East, on the periphery of cultures and empires, and as such the Gulf region, which includes the present-day countries of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, has not received the attention it deserves from historians. This volume, however, will focus on the unifying factors that have historically led to this region’s distinctiveness, and not on the divisions that have arisen with modern statehood. For the first time, the Gulf will be viewed as a civilizational unit that should be studied in its own right over a long period of time.1
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Notes
D. T. Potts, The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 2, From Alexander the Great to the Coming of Islam (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 349–50.
“Location on the shore transcends differing influences from an inland that is very diverse, both in geographic and cultural terms, so that the shore folk have more in common with other shore folk thousands of kilometers away on some other shore of the ocean than they do with those in their immediate hinterland. Surat and Mombasa have more in common with each other than they do with inland cities such as Nairobi or Ahmadabad.” Michael N. Pearson, “Littoral Society: The Concept and the Problems,” Journal of World History 17, no. 4 (2006): 353–54.
Rupert Hay, The Persian Gulf States (Washington, D. C.: The Middle East Institute, 1959), 148.
John Peterson, “Oman’s Diverse Society: Northern Oman,” Middle East Journal 58, no. 1 (2004): 34. The Political Agent enumerated the languages as: Arabic spoken by natives; Persian by some natives of Persia who have settled recently in Oman for trade purposes as well as by some families who are of Persian extraction and whose residence dates from the Persian occupation of Muscat; Baluchi by the Baluch fishermen and others who form the majority of the servant class throughout State; English by the Political Agent and his staff, as well as certain Goanese and other merchants; French by the French Consul and certain Belgian arms merchants; Swahili by Negro slaves and their relatives; Somali by natives of Somaliland who visit Oman’s shores yearly in search of dates, etc.; Hindustani by the large bulk of the educated population; Sindi by Hindu merchants from Sind and by the Khoja community who have within the last century settled in Oman and are rapidly coming to be regarded as part of the Arab population; Gujarati by a number of Hindu traders from the southern part of Bombay Presidency, residence of some of whom in Oman dates back for 150 years and possibly more; Portuguese or Goanese by the Goanese population, merchants, domestic servants, etc., who number a dozen souls or more; Pushtu by Baluch and Afghan arms’ dealers who are still to be met with occasionally in bazaars; Armenian and Turkish by Armenian merchants and secretaries and by a few Turkish soldiers who having deserted from the Turkish army operating in Yemen have migrated east, and taken service under the sympathetic ruler of Oman.
W. G. Grey, “Trade and Races of Oman,” Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society 2, no. 2 (January 1911), p. 4. Somali, Portuguese, and Armenian could probably be deleted from today’s list.
Juan R I. Cole, “Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shiʿism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 19, no. 2 (1987): 177–203. In this important article, Cole traces how “the Baharina [indigenous Shiʿi Arabs of Bahrain] gradually traded the radical, egalitarian Ismaʿilism of the ninth through 11th century Carmathian movement for a more quietist version of Shiʿism—the Twelver or Imami branch—which Sunni rulers considered less objectionable” (p. 178).
Walter J. Fischel, “The Region of the Persian Gulf and its Jewish Settlements in Islamic Times,” in Alexander Marx Jubilee Volume, English Section (New York: The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1950), 204–29.
AHR Forum, “Oceans of History,” The American Historical Review 111, no. 3 (June 2006): 717–80. These articles treat the history of the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Mediterranean; notably, the Indian Ocean is absent.
Willem Floor, The Persian Gulf: A Political and Economic History of Five Port Cities 1500–1730 (Washington, D.C.: Mage, 2006), 601.
John E. Wills, Jr., “Maritime Asia, 1500–1800: The Interactive Emergence of European Domination,” American Historical Review 98, no 1 (February 1993): 84–5.
A good example is J. B. Kelly, Britain and the Persian Gulf 1795–1880 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968; repr. 1991).
A source of inspiration for this book is the work of Braudel on the Mediterranean (Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 2 vols., trans. Siân Reynolds, 2nd. rev. ed. [New York: Harper and Row, 1975]).
Only one recent book by a scholar from the Gulf has embraced a Braudelian approach to the area (M. Reda Bhacker, Trade and Empire in Muscat and Zanzibar: Roots of British Domination [London: Routledge, 1992]).
Braudel’s insights have now been applied to the Indian Ocean: see K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985) and Asia Before Europe: Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990);
also Michael Pearson, The Indian Ocean, Seas in History (London: Routledge, 2003). The French historian Jean Aubin set the standard for investigating the history of the Persian Gulf with many studies highlighting the role of Hormuz. See especially “Les princes d’Ormuz du XIIIe au XVe siècle,” Journal Asiatique 241 (1953): 77–137 and “Le royaume d’Ormuz au début du XVIe siècle,” Mare Luso-Indicum II (1973): 77–179.
A concise and helpful overview of the expansion of merchants and Islam in the Indian Ocean is provided by Patricia Risso in Merchants and Faith: Muslim Commerce and Culture in the Indian Ocean, New Perspectives on Asian History (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995).
Another ambitious effort to tie together the modern history of the western Indian Ocean is by Beatrice Nicolini, Makran, Oman and Zanzibar: Three-Terminal Cultural Corridor in the Western Indian Ocean (1799–1856), Islam in Africa 3 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004). An Iranian scholar, Mohammad Bagher Vosoughi [Muhammad Baqir Vusuqi], has recently produced a stream of publications on the Persian Gulf in the medieval period. For example, see Tarikh-i muhajirat-i aqvam dar Khalij-i Fars [The History of the Emigration of Peoples in the Persian Gulf] (Shiraz: Intisharat-i Danishnama-yi Fars, 1380/2002). The numerous works of Willem Floor on the Gulf from about 1500 to 1800 contain a wealth of valuable detail and must also be mentioned. See especially The Persian Gulf: A Political and Economic History of Five Port Cities 1500–1730 and The Persian Gulf: The Rise of the Gulf Arabs; The Politics of Trade on the Persian Littoral, 1747–1792 (Washington, D.C.: Mage, 2006 and 2007).
Khaldoun Hasan al-Naqeeb, Society and State in the Gulf and Arab Peninsula: A Different Perspective, trans. L. M. Kenny (London and New York: Routledge for the Centre for Arab Unity Studies, 1990);
Assem Dessouki, “Social and Political Dimensions of the Historiography of the Arab Gulf,” in Statecraft in the Middle East: Oil, Historical Memory, and Popular Culture, ed. Eric Davis and Nicolas Gavrielides (Miami: Florida International University Press, 1991), 92–115 (with citations of relevant works).
Muhammad Ali Khan Sadid al-Saltana, Tarikh-i Masqat va Uman, Bahrain va Qatar va ravabit-i anha ba Iran (1933), ed. A. Iqtidari (Tehran, Iran: Dunya-yi kitab, 1370/1991).
See the thoughtful discussion in Patricia Risso, “Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Piracy: Maritime Violence in the Western Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Region during a Long Eighteenth Century,” Journal of World History 12 (2001): 293–319.
Sultan Muhammad Al-Qasimi, The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1988).
The most thorough treatment is Charles E. Davies, The Blood-Red Arab Flag: An Investigation into Qasimi Piracy 1797–1820 (Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 1997).
Especially J. G. Lorimer, Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia (Calcutta, India: Superintendent Government Printing, 1908 and 1915; repr. Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire, UK: Archive Editions, 1986), in 9 volumes.
Several collections of old maps of the Gulf have been published: see Dejanirah Couto, Jean-Louis Bacqué-Grammont, and Mahmoud Taleghani, eds., Historical Atlas of the Persian Gulf (Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries) (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2006);
Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, ed., The Gulf in Historic Maps 1478–1861, 2nd ed. (Leicester, UK: Thinkprint Ltd., 1999);
Mohammad-Reza Sahab et al., eds., Persian Gulf: Atlas of Old and Historical Maps (3000 b.c. –2000 a.d. ), 2 vols. (Tehran, Iran: Center for Documents and Diplomatic History with the Cooperation of Tehran University, 2005).
For decades the standard history has been Arnold T. Wilson, The Persian Gulf: An Historical Sketch from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1928; repr. 1959).
This can be supplemented with Alvin J. Cottrell, ed., The Persian Gulf States: A General Survey (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980).
A new treatment in Persian is Muhammad Baqir Vusuqi, Tarikh-i Khalij-i Fars va mamalik-i hamjavar [The History of the Persian Gulf and its Bordering Territories] (Tehran, Iran: Intisharat-i Samt, 1384/2005).
A book by Svat Soucek, The Persian Gulf: Its Past and Present (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2008) appeared just as this book went to press.
In the vicinity of the Gulf we have recent books on the history of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, which, like the Gulf, have recently become the focus of international attention and competition for petroleum resources: Charles King, The Black Sea: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004)
and Guive Mirfendereski, A Diplomatic History of the Caspian Sea: Treaties, Diaries, and Other Stories (New York: Palgrave, 2001). The Red Sea—a historical competitor of the Persian Gulf as a conduit between Europe and Asia—is another body of water that deserves further research.
The Society for Arabian Studies has recently carried out a Red Sea Project. Published proceedings to date include: P. Lunde and A. Porter, eds., Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region, Society for Arabian Studies, Monograph No. 2/B.A.R. International Series 1269 (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2004);
Janet Starkey, ed., People of the Red Sea, Society for Arabian Studies, Monograph No. 3/B.A.R. International Series 1395 (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2005);
and Janet Starkey, Paul Starkey, and Tony Wilkinson, eds., Natural Resources and Cultural Connections of the Red Sea, Society for Arabian Studies, Monograph No. 5/B.A.R. International Series 1661 (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2007).
Material on the largest Arab port cities (Kuwait, Manama, Doha, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras al-Khaimah, Muscat, and Mutrah) is collected in Richard Trench, ed., Arab Gulf Cities, 4 vols. (Slough, UK: Archives Editions, 1994).
See now Nelida Fuccaro, Histories of City and State in the Persian Gulf: Manama Since 1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). This important rethinking of the history of the Gulf focuses on urbanism and indigenous populations, as opposed to tribalism and external influences that have traditionally dominated scholarship of the region.
Lawrence Potter, “The Port of Siraf: Historical Memory and Iran’s Role in the Persian Gulf,” in Proceedings of the International Congress of Siraf Port (Bushehr, Iran: Bushehr Branch of Iranology Foundation, 2005), 28–49.
André Wink, “From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean: Medieval History in Geographic Perspective,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 44 (2002): 418.
R. J. Barendse, The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2002), 40.
Michel Tuchscherer, “Trade and Port Cities in the Red Sea — Gulf of Aden Region in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century,” in Modernity and Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean, ed. Leila Tarazi Fawaz and C. A. Bayly (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 29.
Peter Lienhardt, Shaikhdoms of Eastern Arabia (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 116–17.
Frauke Heard-Bey, From Trucial States to United Arab Emirates, new ed. (London: Longman, 1996), 258–59.
John C. Wilkinson, The Imamate Tradition of Oman, Cambridge Middle East Library (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 47.
Naval Intelligence Division, British Admiralty, Persia, Geographical Handbook Series ([Oxford: Oxford University Press?], 1945), 545
and George N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, vol. 2 (London: Longmans, Green, 1892; repr. London: Frank Cass, 1966), 198.
Easa Saleh Al-Gurg, The Wells of Memory: An Autobiography (London: John Murray, 1998), 4–5.
According to Istakhri, cited in Le Strange, Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, 258. Excavations in the 1970s revealed that the walls of Siraf enclosed an area of more than 250 hectares (see David Whitehouse, “Excavations at Siraf: Sixth Interim Report,” Iran 12 [1974]: 2.)
R. A. Carter, K. Challis, S. M. N. Priestman, and H. Tofighian, “The Bushehr Hinterland: Results of the First Season of the Iranian-British Archaeological Survey of Bushehr Province, November–December 2004,” Iran 44 (2006): 63–103.
Stephen R. Grummon, “The Rise and Fall of the Arab Shaykhdom of Bushire: 1750–1850,” (PhD diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1985), 98–99.
Rhoads Murphey, “On the Evolution of the Port City,” in Brides of the Sea: Port Cities of Asia from the 16th–20th Centuries, ed. Frank Broeze (Kensington, Australia: New South Wales University Press, 1989), 225.
Al-Muqaddasi, The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions: A Translation of Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Maʿrifat al-Aqalim, trans. B. A. Collins and M. H. al-Tai (Reading, UK: Garnet Publishing for The Centre for Muslim Contribution to Civilisation, 1994), 89.
Lewis Pelly, “Visit to Lingah, Kishm, and Bunder Abbass,” Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London 34 (1864): 252. I am grateful to William Beeman for providing a copy of this article.
Vanessa Martin, “Slavery and Black Slaves in Iran in the Nineteenth Century,” in The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005), 150–69;
Thomas M. Ricks, “Slaves and Slave Traders in the Persian Gulf, 18th and 19th Centuries: An Assessment,” Slavery and Abolition 9, no. 3 (1988): 60–70.
Jerry H. Bentley, “Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks of Historical Analysis,” Geographical Review 89, no. 2 (April 1999): 215–24.
Kären Wigen, “Introduction,” in Seascapes: Maritime Histories, Littoral Cultures, and Transoceanic Exchanges, ed. Jerry H. Bentley, Renate Bridenthal, and Kären Wigen, Perspectives on the Global Past (Honolulu: University of Hawaiʿi Press, 2007), 17.
This thesis is developed by M. R. Izady in “The Gulf’s Ethnic Diversity: An Evolutionary History,” in Security in the Persian Gulf: Origins, Obstacles, and the Search for Consensus, ed. Lawrence G. Potter and Gary G. Sick (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 33–90.
See Emma Nicholson and Peter Clark, eds., The Iraqi Marshlands: A Human and Environmental Study, 2nd ed. (London: Politico’s Publishing, 2002)
and the website, http://www.Edenagain.org. Also Naval Intelligence Division, British Admiralty, Iraq and the Persian Gulf, Geographical Handbook Series ([Oxford: Oxford University Press?], 1944), chaps. 7 and 9.
For a detailed description see W. B. Fisher, “Physical Geography,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 1, The Land of Iran, ed. W. B. Fisher (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 3–110; British Admiralty, Persia; and the appendixes in Cottrell, The Persian Gulf States, 541–666.
Xavier de Planhol, “Garmsir and Sardsir,” Encyclopædia Iranica 10 (2001): 316–17.
Refer to the excellent article, “Lar, Laristan,” by Jean Calmard in The Encyclopedia of Islam, new ed., 5 (1986), 665–76.
See now Muhammad Baqir Vusuqi, Manuchihr Abidi Rad, Sadiq Rahmani, and Kiramat-Allah Taqavi, Tarikh-i mufassal-i Laristan [Comprehensive History of Laristan], 2 vols. (Tehran: Hamsaya, 1385/2006).
Sources: Admiralty, Iraq Handbook; W. B. Fisher, The Middle East: A Physical, Social and Regional Geography, 6th ed. (London: Methuen, 1971), 465–73.
See Chapter 11, “Braving the Winds,” in Dionisius A. Agius, Seafaring in the Arabian Gulf and Oman: The People of the Dhow (London: Kegan Paul, 2005), 191–201. Matthee notes, for example, that there was a narrow window of opportunity for trading in Basra: ships departing from Goa in May, with intermediate stops, would arrive in Basra in July and had to depart again for India not later than October. Unfortunately, this corresponded with the hot summer months (see below, page 109).
George F. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times, revised and expanded edition by John Carswell (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 69–79.
Alan Villiers, Sons of Sinbad (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940; repr. 1969). This book has now been republished with a new introduction by William Facey, Yacoub Al-Hijji, and Grace Pundyk (London: Arabian Publishing, 2006). A marvelous selection of his photos has appeared as Sons of Sindbad: The Photographs; Dhow Voyages with the Arabs in 1938–39 in the Red Sea, round the Coasts of Arabia, and to Zanzibar and Tanganyika; Pearling in the Gulf; And the Life of the Shipmasters and Mariners on Kuwait, selected and introduced by William Facey, Yacoub Al-Hijji, and Grace Pundyk (London: Arabian Publishing, 2006). A brief account of his voyage from the Gulf to East Africa is contained in “Some Aspects of the Arab Dhow Trade,” The Middle East Journal 2 (1948): 399–416.
See Robert Carter, “The History and Prehistory of Pearling in the Persian Gulf,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 48, no. 2 (2005): 139–209;
Saif Marzooq al-Shamlan, Pearling in the Arabian Gulf: A Kuwaiti Memoir, rev. ed., trans. Peter Clark (London: The London Centre of Arab Studies, 2001);
and Richard LeBaron Bowen, Jr., “The Pearl Fisheries of the Persian Gulf,” Middle East Journal 5 (1951): 161–80.
Henry Yule, trans. and ed., The Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, 3rd ed. (London: John Murray, 1902; repr. 1929), vol. 1, 107–08 (at Hormuz they ate dates, salt-fi sh, and onions) and vol. 2, 450 (at Qalhat they ate dates and salt fi sh); The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D. 1325–1354, vol. 2, Second Series No. CXVII, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1962), 400 (at Hormuz they ate fi sh and dried dates imported from Oman and Basra).
C. M. Cursetjee, The Land of the Date: A Recent Voyage from Bombay to Basra and Back, Fully Descriptive of the Ports and Peoples of the Persian Gulf and the Shat’-el-Arab, their Conditions, History and Customs. 1916–1917 (1918; new ed. Reading, UK: Garnet, 1994), 17.
Villers, “Some Aspects of the Arab Dhow Trade,” 399 and Yacoub Al-Hijji, Old Kuwait: Memories in Photographs (Kuwait: Center for Research and Studies on Kuwait, 1997), 93, 96.
See Hans E. Wulff, “The Qanats of Iran,” Scientifi c American 218 (1968): 94–105
and Dale R. Lightfoot, “The Origin and Diffusion of Qanats in Arabia: New Evidence from the Northern and Southern Peninsula,” The Geographical Journal 166, no. 3 (2000): 215–26.
See Anne Coles and Peter Jackson, Windtower (London: Stacey International, 2007).
Yaʿqub Yusuf al-Hijji, The Art of Dhow-building in Kuwait (London: The London Centre of Arab Studies in association with the Centre for Research and Studies on Kuwait, 2001), 38–41.
Charles Belgrave, The Pirate Coast (Beirut, Lebanon: Librairie du Liban, 1960, repr. 1972), 192.
Richard LeBaron Bowen, Jr., “Marine Industries of Eastern Arabia,” The Geographical Review 41 (1951): 393–95.
Pedro Teixeira mentions the mining of this coral rock (which he calls sang-i mahi) near Hormuz in the sixteenth century. See The Travels of Pedro Teixeira; with His “Kings of Harmuz,” and Extracts from his “Kings of Persia,” ed. William F. Sinclair and Donald Ferguson (Hakluyt Society, 1902; repr. Nendeln/Liechtenstein: Kraus Reprint, 1967), 233–34.
Salwa Alghanim, The Reign of Mubarak Al-Sabah: Shaikh of Kuwait 1896–1915 (London: I. B. Tauris, 1998), 146–48.
Hala Fattah, The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia, and the Gulf 1745–1900 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997), 25–28.
M. Niebuhr, Travels through Arabia, and Other Countries in the East, trans. Robert Heron (Edinburgh, 1792; reprint, Reading, UK: Garnet Publishing, 1994), vol. 2, 137.
Lawrence G. Potter, “The Consolidation of Iran’s Frontier on the Persian Gulf in the Nineteenth Century,” in War and Peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present, ed. Roxane Farmanfarmaian (London: Routledge, 2008), 125–48.
John R. Perry, Karim Khan Zand: A History of Iran, 1747–1779, Publications of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies, no. 12 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 152.
“Ahmad: A Kuwaiti Pearl Diver” by Nels Johnson, in Struggle and Survival in the Modern Middle East, ed. Edmund Burke, III (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 91–99.
Ulrike Freitag and William G. Clarence-Smith, eds., Hadhrami Traders, Scholars and Statesmen in the Indian Ocean, 1750s–1960s (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1997);
Linda Boxberger, On the Edge of Empire: Hadhramawt, Emigration, and the Indian Ocean, 1880s–1930s (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002);
Ulrike Freitag, Indian Ocean Migrants and State Formation in Hadhramaut: Reforming the Homeland (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2003);
and Engseng Ho, The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).
Mohammed Redha Bhacker and Bernadette Bhacker, “Qalhat in Arabian History: Context and Chronicles,” The Journal of Oman Studies 13 (2004): 11–55.
Villiers, “Some Aspects of the Arab Dhow Trade,” 405. Villers mentions as an example a large family based in Kuwait; a very informative portrait of a similar family based in Bushehr and Bahrain is provided by James Onley, in “Transnational Merchants in the Nineteenth-Century Gulf: The Case of the Safar Family,” in Transnational Connections and the Arab Gulf, ed. Madawi Al-Rasheed (London; Routledge, 2005), 59–89.
Ahl-i Hava (Tehran: Muʾassisa-yi Mutaliʿat va Tahqiqat-i Ijtimaʿi, Intisharat 36, Monograph 8, Chapkhana-yi Danishgah, 1345/1966) has not been translated. See Gholam-Hossein Sa’edi, Fear and Trembling, trans. Minoo Southgate (Washington, D. C.: Three Continents Press, 1984), and commentary in the translater’s introduction.
This has not yet been translated into English. See Nasrin Rahimieh, “Magical Realism in Moniru Ravanipur’s Ahl-e gharq,” Iranian Studies 23 (1990): 61–75.
Nasser Al-Taee, “‘Enough, Enough, Oh Ocean’: Music of the Pearl Divers in the Arabian Gulf,” Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 39, no. 1 (2005): 19–30.
Juan R. I. Cole, “Iranian Culture and South Asia, 1500–1900,” in Iran and the Surrounding World: Interactions in Culture and Cultural Politics, ed. Nikki R. Keddie and Rudi Matthee (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 15–35.
James Onley, The Arabian Frontier of the British Raj: Merchants, Rulers, and the British in the Nineteenth-Century Gulf (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
Thomas R. Metcalf, Imperial Connections: India in the Indian Ocean Arena, 1860–1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 89–101 (quote is on page no. 89).
Frederick F. Anscombe, The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
It might be pointed out that there is some question as to what “Arab” identity constituted in the pre-Islamic period. See Michael G. Morony, “The Arabisation of the Gulf,” in The Arab Gulf and the Arab World, ed. B. R. Pridham (London: Croom Helm, 1988), 3–28.
This is pointed out by Hourani in Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean, 65–68. Refer to Buzurg ibn Shahriyar, Kitab ajaib al-Hind, trans. and ed. by G. S. P. Freemen-Grenville as The Book of the Wonders of India: Mainland, Sea and Islands (London: East-West Publications, 1981).
L. Lockhart, Nadir Shah: A Critical Study Based Mainly upon Contemporary Sources (London, 1938; repr. Jalandhar, India: Asian Publishers, 1993), 222.
M. Kasheff, “Arvand-Rud,” in Encyclopædia Iranica 2 (1987): 679–81.
Charles Tripp, A History of Iraq (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 165.
S. H. Amin, Political and Strategic Issues in the Persian-Arabian Gulf (Glasgow: Royston Limited, 1984), 82. See his section on the controversy on pages 81–85.
Muhammad Rumaihi, Beyond Oil: Unity and Development in the Gulf, trans. James Dickens (London: Al Saqi Books, 1986), 11.
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Potter, L.G. (2009). Introduction. In: Potter, L.G. (eds) The Persian Gulf in History. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230618459_1
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