Abstract
Definitions of civil society have historically varied,1 the main point of contention being whether civil society can only be defined in a liberal democratic framework.2 Most scholars accept the essentially liberal character of the term. Hall defines civil society as “the self-organization of strong and autonomous groups that balance the state.”3 Civil society is perceived as the counterweight that effectively checks the state. According to Diamond, civil society is “the realm of organized social life that is voluntary, self-generating, (largely) self-supporting, autonomous from the state, and bound by a legal order or a set of shared values.”4
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Sefa Simsek, “The Transformation of Civil Society in Turkey: From Quantity to Quality,” Turkish Studies 5, no. 3 (2004): 44.
John A. Hall, “In Search of Civil Society,” in Civil Society: Theory, History, Comparison, ed. John A. Hall (London: Polity Press, 1996), 15.
Larry Diamond, “Rethinking Civil Society: Toward Democratic Consolidation,” Journal of Democracy 5, no. 3 (1994): 5.
Ernest Gellner, “The Importance of Being Modular,” in Civil Society: Theory, History, Comparison, ed. John A. Hall (London: Polity Press, 1996), 32.
Bjorn Beckman, “Explaining Democratisation: Notes on the Concept of Civil Society,” in Democracy, Civil Society and the Muslim World, Elizabeth Ozdalga and Sune Persson (Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute, 1997), 2.
Metin Heper, “The Ottoman Legacy and Turkish Politics,” Journal of International Affairs 54, no. 1 (2000): 78.
Heper cites Joseph S. Szyliowicz, “The Ottoman Empire,” in Commoners, Climbers, and Notables: A Sampler of Studies on Social Ranking in the Middle East, Christoffel Anthonie Olivier van Nieuwenhuijze (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997), 103, 07,
and Serif Mardin, “Ideology and Religion in the Turkish Revolution,” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 2, no. 3 (1971): 202.
See Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and its Rivals (London: Penguin, 1996), 15–18.
The importance of strong central power in Islamic political thought was already emphasized in the following saying of Ibn Hanbal, one of the most prominent Islamic jurisprudents: “Sixty years under a tyrant are better than a single night of anarchy.” See Faziur Rahman, “The Law of Rebellion in Islam,” in Islam in the Modern World: 1983 Paine Lectures in Religion, Jill Raitt (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri-Columbia Department of Religious Studies, 1983), 1–10.
Emre Erdogan, Turk Sivil Toplum Kuruluslarinin Gelisimleri Uzerine Bazi Notlar (Istanbul: Infakto, 2005), 1–3.
Serif Mardin, “Freedom in an Ottoman Perspective,” in State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s, ed. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988), 30–31.
For more details, see Taha Parla, Ziya Gokalp, Kemalizm ve Turkiye’de Korporatizm, ed. Ikinci Basim (Istanbul: Iletisim, 1993),
cited in Aykut Kansu, “Turkiye’de Korporatist Dusunce ve Korporatizm Uygulamalari,” in Kemalizm, ed. Ahmet Insel (Istanbul: Iletisim, 2001), 260.
See Articles 70, 79, and 86 of the 1924 Constitution at Edward Mead Merle, “The New Constitution of Turkey,” Political Science Quarterly 40, no. 1 (1925): 96–98.
See Kemali Saybasili, “Chambers of Commerce & Industry, Political Parties, Governments: A Comparative Study of British and Turkish Cases,” Studies in Development (Ankara: Middle East Technical University, 1976). Such associations are referred to in the academic liiterature on civil society as governmental nongovernmental organizations (GONGOs).
Metin Heper, “State and Society in Turkish Political Experience,” in State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s, ed. Ahmet Evin and Metin Heper (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988), 6.
For more details, see Paul Kubicek, “The Earthquake, Europe, and Prospects for Political Change in Turkey,” Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA) 5, no. 2 (2001): 36.
See Omer Caha, “The Inevitable Coexistence of Civil Society and Liberalism: The Case of Turkey,” Journal of Economic and Social Research 3, no. 2 (2001): 40–44.
Binnaz Toprak, “Civil Society in Turkey,” in Civil Society in the Middle East, Augustus Richard Norton (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996), 95–96.
E. Fuat Keyman and Ahmet Icduygu, “Globalisation, Civil Society and Citizenship in Turkey: Actors, Boundaries and Discourses,” Citizenship Studies 7, no. 2 (2003): 225–26.
Ioannis N. Grigoriadis and Antonis Kamaras, “Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Turkey: Historical Constraints and the AKP Success Story,” Middle Eastern Studies 44, no. 1 (2008): 53–56.
Diba Nigar Goksel and Rana Birden Gunes, “The Role of NGOs in the European Integration Process: The Turkish Experience,” South European Society & Politics 10, no. 1 (2005): 67.
Ziya Onis and Umut Turem, “Business, Globalization and Democracy: A Comparative Analysis of Turkish Business Associations,” Turkish Studies 2, no. 2 (2001): 98–103.
Bulent Tanor, 1997 TUSIAD Report: Perspectives on Democratization in Turkey (Istanbul: TUSIAD, 1997).
Serap Atan, “Europeanisation of Turkish Peak Business Organisations and Turkey-EU Relations,” in Turkey and European Integration: Accession Prospects and Issues, ed. Mehmet Ugur and Nergis Canefe (London: Routledge, 2004), 104–7.
Binnaz Toprak, “Civil Society in Turkey,” in Towards Civil Society in the Middle East, ed. Jillian Schwedler (London: Lynne Rienner, 1995), 79–80.
Kemal Kirisci and Gareth M. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 113.
This was a group of mothers whose children went missing as a result of state security operations. The Saturday Mothers demonstrated every Saturday from 1995 to 1999 in the Galatasaray Square of Istanbul, demanding an account of their children’s fate, and became a symbol of Turkey’s human rights problems. See Jonathan Sugden, “Human Rights and Turkey’s EU Candidacy,” in Turkey and European Integration: Accession Prospects and Issues, ed. Mehmet Ugur and Nergis Canefe (London: Routledge, 2004), 246.
Jenny B. White, Islamist Mobilization in Turkey: A Study in Vernacular Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003), 69–76.
For more information on Mazlum-Der, see Gottfried Plagemann, “Human Rights Organisations: Defending the Particular or the Universal?” in Civil Society in the Grip of Nationalism, ed. Stefanos Yerasimos, Gunter Seufert and Karin Vorhoff (Istanbul: Orient-Institut & Institut Francais d’Études Anatoliennes, 2000), 451–59.
For a thorough portrait of MUSIAD, see Karin Vorhoff, “Businessmen and Their Organizations: Between Instrumental Solidarity, Cultural Diversity and the State,” in Civil Society in the Grip of Nationalism, ed. Stefanos Yerasimos, Gunter Seufert and Karin Vorhoff (Istanbul: Orient-Institut & Institut Francais d’Études Anatoliennes, 2000), 158–72.
Nilufer Gole, “Authoritarian Secularism and Islamic Participation: The Case of Turkey” in Jillian Schwedler, ed., Towards Civil Society in the Middle East (London: Lynne Rienner, 1995), 81–82.
Millions of Turkish citizens simultaneously turned off the lights of their houses at 9:00 PM for one minute throughout February 1997. See Tanil Bora and Selda Caglar, “Modernlesme ve Batililasmanin Bir Tasiyicisi Olarak Sivil Toplum Kuruluslari” in Modernlesme ve Baticilik, ed. Uygur Kocabasoglu (Istanbul: Iletisim, 2002), 340.
Demir Murat Seyrek, “The Road to EU Membership: The Role of Turkish Civil Society,” Turkish Policy Quarterly 3, no. 3(2004): 118.
Hakan Tunc, “The Lost Gamble: The 2000 and 2001 Turkish Financial Crises in Comparative Perspective,” Turkish Studies 4, no. 2 (2003): 46.
Ziya Onis, “Domestic Politics versus Global Dynamics: Towards a Political Economy of the 2000 and 2001 Financial Crises,” Turkish Studies 4, no. 2 (2003): 14–15.
For details on the EU-funded promotion of democratization in the Mediterranean countries through the MEDA program, see Nadim Karkutli and Dirk Butzler, Final Report: Evaluation of the MEDA Democracy Programme 1996–1998 (Brussels: European Commission, 1999).
European Union, Financial Assistance before Candidacy (Delegation of the European Commission to Turkey: Ankara, 2004), http://www.deltur.cec.eu.int/default.asp?lang=1&ndx=12&mnID=3&ord=5&subOrd=1.
Official Journal of the European Communities, 2000 Accession Partnership Agreement with the Republic of Turkey [2001/235/EC] (Brussels: European Communities, 2001), L85/16.
The information on the six programs has been obtained from European Union, EU Funded Programmes in Turkey 2003–2004 (Ankara: European Commission Representation to Turkey, 2004), 39–45.
Korel Goymen, “The Third Sector in Turkey: Towards a New Social Contract with the State” (paper presented at the EGPA 2004 Annual Conference, Ljubljana, September 1, 2004), 5.
Commission of the European Communities, 1998 Regular Report on Turkey’s Progress Towards Accession (Brussels: European Union, 1998), 16.
Commission of the European Communities, 1999 Regular Report on Turkey’s Progress Towards Accession (Brussels: European Union, 1999), 13.
Commission of the European Communities, 2000 Regular Report on Turkey’s Progress Towards Accession (Brussels: European Union, 2000), 17.
Turk Buyuk Millet Meclisi (TBMM), Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasasinin Bazi Maddelerinin Degistirilmesi Hakkinda Kanun (4709/2001).
Commission of the European Communities, 2001 Regular Report on Turkey’s Progress Towards Accession [SEC(2001) 1756] (Brussels: European Union, 2001), 26–28.
Turk Buyuk Millet Meclisi (TBMM), Bazi Kanunlarda Degisiklik Yapilmasina Iliskin Kanun (4748/2002).
See Turk Buyuk Millet Meclisi (TBMM), Cesitli Kanunlarda Degisiklik Yapilmasina Iliskin Kanun (4963/2003a).
Commission of the European Communities, 2002 Regular Report on Turkey’s Progress Towards Accession [SEC(2002) 1412] (Brussels: European Union, 2002), 35.
See Turk Buyuk Millet Meclisi (TBMM), Cesitli Kanunlarda Degisiklik Yapilmasina Iliskin Kanun (4778/2003b).
Commission of the European Communities, 2003 Regular Report on Turkey’s Progress Towards Accession (Brussels: European Union, 2003), 32.
Turk Buyuk Millet Meclisi (TBMM), Dernekler Kanunu (5231/2004a).
Senem Aydin and E. Fuat Keyman, European Integration and the Transformation of Turkish Democracy [No. 2] (Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS), 2004), 29–30.
Turk Buyuk Millet Meclisi (TBMM), Dernekler Kanunu (5253/2004b).
Ersin Kalaycioglu, “Civil Society in Turkey Continuity or Change?” in Turkish Transformations: New Centuries, New Challenges, ed. Brian W. Beely (Walkington, UK: Eothen Press, 2004), 74–75.
The empowerment of Turkish civil society also became evident in its impact on Turkey’s refusal to join the United States in its 2003 war against Iraq. See Ian O. Lesser, Turkey in the EU: A New U.S. Relationship (Western Policy Center: Washington DC, 2004), 2, http://www.westernpolicy.org/Secondary.asp?PageName=Publication&Page =Commentary/Commentary75.asp.
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© 2009 Ioannis N. Grigoriadis
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Grigoriadis, I.N. (2009). Civil Society. In: Trials of Europeanization. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230618053_3
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