Abstract
As the phylactery and umbilicus statue suggested in the last chapter, the physical features of the medieval reliquary often drew attention to and commented upon its representational strategies. Reading other such devotional objects, as well as the cultural traditions informing them, can help us to elaborate further on the reliquary’s inscriptional and performative strategies, and ultimately to establish an artifact-based language about representation. As Chaucer’s Book of the Duchess will demonstrate, the ways that inscription and performance enshrine each other in the reliquary provide a formal mechanism for understanding the representational strategies of poetic language. The Book of the Duchess provides an initiating instance of the poetics of enshrinement at work.
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Notes
Wendy Steiner, The Colors of Rhetoric: Problems in the Relation between Modern Literature and Painting (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. xi, 16.
As n. 21 of the introduction indicates, Hugh of Saint Victor explicates Confessions 7.10 through this device.
A number of critics in the fields of both literary studies and performance theory have articulated the inevitability of performance’s connection to performativity. Keir Elam has asserted that “speech act theory itself is founded on a dramatic model of language use.” Elam, “Much Ado About Doing Things with Words (and Other Means): Some Problems in the Pragmatics of Theatre and Drama,” in Performing Texts, ed. Michael Issacharoff and Robin F. Jones (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), p. 42 [39–57]. See also, for instance, Andew Parker and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, “Introduction,” in Performativity and Performance, ed. Parker and Sedgwick (New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 2 [1–18]. They discuss two potential ends ofthe spectrum of performance—“the extroversion of the actor” and “the introversion of the signifier,” but also refer to Paul de Man’s invocation of “the torsion, the mutual perversion…of reference and performativity” (pp. 2–3). Steven Connor also provides a helpful account of how the word “perform” itself contains implications of both “acting” (doing something, or bringing something into being) and at the same time of “enacting” (impersonating or imitating). Performing implies at once a spontaneous event and a “doubling.” See Connor, “Postmodern Performance,” in Analysing Performance: A Critical Reader, ed. Patrick Campbell (New York: Manchester University Press, 1996), pp. 107–8 [107–24].
Antonina Harbus, “Text as Revelation: Constantine’s Dream in Elene,” Neophilologus 78.4 (1994): 647 [645–53].
The Epitome of S. Eucherius About Certain Holy Places, trans. Aubrey Steward (London: Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Society, 1971), pp. 13–14.
Julia Bolton Holloway, “TheDream of theRood and Liturgical Drama,” ComparativeDrama 18.1 (1984): 35 n. 6 [19–37].
Jeffrey F. Hamburger, TheVisual and theVisionary:Art andFemaleSpirituality inLate-MedievalGermany (New York: Zone Books, 1998), p. 19.
Dunbar H. Ogden, The Staging of Drama in the Medieval Church (London: Associated University Presses, 2002), p. 51.
Lisa Victoria Ciresi, “A Liturgical Study of the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne,” in Objects, Images, and the Word: Art in the Service of the Liturgy, ed. Colum Hourihane (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), pp. 208, 202 [202–30].
Peter Draper, “Architecture and Liturgy,” in Age of Chivalry, p. 86 [83–91]. See also Paul Binski, “Liturgy and Local Knowledge: English Perspectives on Trondheim Cathedral,” in The Medieval Cathedral of Trondheim: Architectural and Ritual Constructions in their European Context, ed. Margrete Syrstad Andås, Øystein Ekroll, Andreas Haug, and Nils Holger Petersen (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2007), pp. 21–46. Binksi uses English cathedrals, such as Canterbury, Lincoln, and Ely, to examine the methods by which we perceive connections between physical spaces and the ceremonies within them, and the importance of local and specific traditions in such readings.
Eleanor Townsend, “Pilgrimage,” in Gothic Art for England 1400–1547, ed. Richard Marks and Paul Williamson, assisted by Eleanor Townsend (London: V&A Publications, 2003), p. 425 [424–35].
Ciresi, “Liturgical Study,” in Objects, Images, and the Word, p. 212.
Ogden, Staging of Drama, p. 63.
Ogden, Staging of Drama, pp. 17, 71.
John D. Caputo, “Shedding Tears Beyond Being: Derrida’s Confession of Prayer,” in Augustine andPostmodernism, p. 100 [95–114].
Caputo, “Shedding Tears,” in Augustine and Postmodernism, p. 102.
Derrida, “Composing ‘Circumfession,”’ in Augustine and Postmodernism, pp. 20–21. As Derrida argues in “Signature Event Context,” the condition of the performative utterance as dictated by context and différance is ultimately a condition of all language. Jacques Derrida, “Signature Event Context,” in Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 325 [307–330].
Kelly McKay Holbert, “Mosan Reliquary Triptychs and the Cult of the True Cross in the Twelfth Century” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1995), pp. 260–66. It should be acknowledged that this somewhat elaborate reading of the triptych’s iconography is vulnerable to the criticism that it relies on what might have been an unrealistic opportunity for detailed examination. At the same time, it seems to me that the convention of enfolding enshrinement, on which this reading depends, would be something apparent to a worshipper familiar with such objects even without microscopic scrutiny.
Holbert, “Mosan Reliquary Triptychs,” p. 227.
Sarah Stanbury, The Visual Object of Desire in Late Medieval England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), pp. 4–5.
Donald L. Ehresmann, “Some Observations on the Role of Liturgy in the Early Winged Altarpiece,” Art Bulletin 64.3 (1982): 359–69.
Draper, “Architecture and Liturgy,” in Age of Chivalry, p. 87.
On the scarcity of late-medieval English metalwork as a result of its destruction, see, for instance, Marian Campbell, “Metalwork in England, c. 1200–1400,” in Age of Chivalry, pp. 162–67; and Kathleen Kamerick, Popular Piety and Art in the Late Middle Ages: Image Worship and Idolatry in England 1350–1500 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), p. 4.
Stanbury, The Visual Object, pp. 5, 13–14. Stanbury’s point that medieval authors had as their cultural context not only a rich culture of images and artifacts but also conflicting social and religious ideas concerning these objects provides an important context for my own readings.
Benjamin Nilson, Cathedral Shrines of Medieval England (Rochester, NY: Boydell, 1998), p. 37.
A fifteenth-century depiction of such a juxtaposition occurs in Lydgate’s Troy Book, with the shrine of Hector incorporating both his body and an image: Ther were degres, men by to ascende…Parformed up al of cristal stoon, Attenyng up fro the table bas Where the standing and the resting was Of this riche crafty tabernacle, Having a-boue, up-on eche pynacle, A riche ruby; and reised high on heighte Stood an ymage, huge & large of weighte, Of massyf gold, havynge the liknes Of worthi Hector… (John Lydgate, Troy Book, ed. Henry Bergen [London: Kegan Paul, 1906–20], III, 11. 5639–50.) Hector’s body in the Troy Book is bloodless, having been drained thoroughly by embalmers. Its placement alongside a golden memorial likeness of him complicates some of the categories of temporality we assign to artifacts—the body in its embalmed state both gestures toward temporal fallibility and at the same time attempts to participate in the same dynamic of stasis as the golden image.
On earlier depictions of reliquaries, which “make explicit the artifice intervening between picture and God,” see Herbert L. Kessler, Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God’s Invisibility in Medieval Art (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), p. 128.
On late-medieval English image shrines, see, e.g., Katherine J. Lewis, “Pilgrimage and the Cult of St. Katherine,” in Pilgrimage Explored,
ed. J. Stopford (Rochester, NY: York Medieval Press, 1999), pp. 145–60; and Nilson, CathedralShrines, p. 57, on empty tombs at major shrine sites in England. See also Eamon Duffy, “The Dynamics of Pilgrimage in Late Medieval England,” in Pilgrimage:TheEnglishExperience fromBecket toBunyan, ed. Colin Morris and Peter Roberts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 164–77.
Lewis, “Pilgrimage and the Cult of St. Katherine,” in Pilgrimage Explored, p. 159.
Duffy, “Dynamics of Pilgrimage,” in Pilgrimage, pp. 171–72.
Gibson, Theater of Devotion, pp. 140–42.
See John Dillenberger, Images and Relics: Theological Perceptions and Visual Images in Sixteenth-Century Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 7, on the Western practice of viewing images as though they were relics.
Eric Jager, The Book of the Heart (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), pp. xvi–xvii.
Steiner, Documentary Culture, p. 3; see also her discussion of the archive on p. 94.
Amy G. Remensnyder, “Legendary Treasure at Conques: Reliquaries and Imaginative Memory,” Speculum 71 (1996): 897–99 [884–906].
Eugene Vance, “Style and Value: From Soldier to Pilgrim in the Song of Roland,” Yale French Studies 80 (1991): 78, 80 [75–96].
In his commentary on Wordsworth’s Essays upon Epitaphs, Geoffrey Hartman calls inscription “any verse conscious of the place on which it was written.” Hartman, The Unremarkable Wordsworth (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), p. 32. Although this notion of the “conscious[ness]” of verse is a particularly Romantic and post-Romantic one, the idea that writing associated with commemoration contains within itself a meeting point between language and the material world is useful for thinking about the nature of an object such as the “A” reliquary.
Vance, “Style and Value,” 90. He refers to the line “Les colps Rollant conut en treis perruns” (1. 2875); I have cited Frederick Goldin’s translation of lines 2874–75 (The Song of Roland, trans. Frederick Goldin [New York: W.W. Norton, 1978], p. 132).
James A. Rushing, Jr., “Images at the Interface: Orality, Literacy, and the Pictorialization of the Roland Material,” in VisualCulture and theGermanMiddleAges, ed. Kathryn Starkey and Horst Wenzel (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 123, 128 [115–34].
Jacques Derrida, “Differance,” in Margins ofPhilosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 4 [1–28].
Remensnyder, “Legendary Treasure,” 892.
Theodore K. Lerud, “Quick Images: Memory and the English Corpus Christi Drama,” in Moving Subjects: Processional Performance in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, ed. Kathleen Ashley and Wim Hüsken (Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 2001), p. 213 [213–38].
As Judson Boyce Allen has shown, much of what medieval people wrote explicitly about poetry was rhetorical or ethical in its force. “Grammar, Poetic Form, and the Lyric Ego: A Medieval A Priori,” in Vernacular Poetics, p. 204 [199–226].
See Geoffrey of Vinsauf, Poetria Nova, in Three Medieval Rhetorical Arts, ed. and trans. James Jerome Murphy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 37.
Jody Enders, “Visions with Voices: The Rhetoric of Memory and Music in Liturgical Drama,” ComparativeDrama 24.1 (1990): 45 [34–54].
Paul Zumthor, Toward a Medieval Poetics, trans. Philip Bennett (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), p. 359.
John Ganim, ChaucerianTheatricality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), pp. 4–5, 34, 41, and 93. Ganim also makes the important point, relevant to the present study, that although the prevailing critical metaphor in Chaucer studies was for a long time Gothic art and architecture, the theatrical metaphor can encompass both “artifact and performance” (5).
Carol Symes, “The Appearance of Early Vernacular Plays: Forms, Functions, and the Future of Medieval Theater,” Speculum 77.3 (2002): 779 [778–831]. See also Symes’s book-length study A Common Stage: Theater and Public Life in Medieval Arras (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007).
We might turn to a later play tradition to reinforce some of these points, because some aspects of early modern theater actually illuminate a semiotics of medieval drama capable of being only implied during the Middle Ages themselves. Drama’s tendency to be self-referential about its own representational practices became increasingly explicit after certain reformist measures had come to pass. One of John Bale’s lost plays deals with the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket, and the existence of such a play demonstrates with particular clarity the possibilities for performance to critique its own representational systems. If, as has been speculated, this play contained a critical portrayal of Becket’s own scene of martyrdom, then such a play would have been making an argument about the role of performance aesthetics themselves in the constitution of the shrine’s authenticity, what Peter Roberts refers to as the “theatrical nature of the cult” (see Roberts, “Politics, Drama, and the Cult of Thomas Becket,” in Pilgrimage: The English Experience, pp. 225–26 [199–237]). More specifically, the pageant of Saint Thomas called attention to his miraculous blood and other relics (it took place on the eve of the Translation of the Relics into the 1530s), and so in this way as well a play critiquing the cult might have found at its center a relic whose meaning was constituted by the conventions of spectacle and audience interaction. At this stage the play could become a means of critiquing the authenticity of the relics, their status as signs, because dramatic expression had already established itself as a vehicle for discourse on the structure of the object’s connection to its mimetic representation.
Brantley, Reading in the Wilderness, p. 9.
Steiner, Documentary Culture, p. 48.
O’Keeffe, Visible Song, pp. 4, 138.
O’Keeffe, Visible Song, p. 22. See also her discussion of Isidore of Seville’s perception of pointing and punctuation as a “visual phenomenon” (pp. 145–46).
Ardis Butterfield, Poetry and Music in Medieval France: From Jean Renart to Guillaume de Machaut (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 171.
Calvin B. Kendall, “The Gate of Heaven and the Fountain of Life: Speech-Act Theory and Portal Inscriptions,” Essays in Medieval Studies 10 (1993): 112–18 [111–25]. See also Kendall’s book-length study on Romanesque church inscription, which traces the Christian architectural adoption of inscriptional embellishment to communicate the physical church’s allegorical meaning. Kendall, The Allegory of the Church: Romanesque Portals and Their Verse Inscriptions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998).
Ernestus Duemmler, rec. Poetae latini aevi carolini 2 (Munich, Germany: Germaniae Historica, 1978), p. 665. Translated in William J. Diebold, Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000), p. 130.
Jeffrey F. Hamburger, “Introduction,” in TheMind’sEye, pp. 4–5 [3–10]. In a later essay in this volume, Hamburger raises the specific issue of inscriptions on devotional objects, but then returns to his focus on iconography, arguing that “for all their recourse to the word, however, medieval images have something to say over and against the texts that claim to speak for them” (Hamburger, “The Medieval Work of Art,” in TheMind’sEye, p. 376). His refusal to privilege textual over visual expression provides an important model for this study.
“The image is not the reflection of some external view of the world but the beginning and foundation of a process of thought.” See Michael Camille, “Before the Gaze: The Internal Senses and Late Medieval Practices of Seeing,” in Visuality Before and Beyond the Renaissance: Seeing as Others Saw, ed. Robert S. Nelson (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 216 [197–223].
See, for instance, Harvey Stahl, “Heaven in View: The Place of the Elect in an Illuminated Book of Hours,” in Last Things: Death and the Apocalypse in the Middle Ages, ed. Caroline Walker Bynum and Paul Freedman (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), pp. 205–6 [205–32]; and Linda Seidel, Legends in Limestone: Lazarus, Gislebertus, and the Cathedral of Autun (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
Hamburger, “Introduction,” p. 5.
Ann R. Meyer makes a related claim that architectural forms exerted an influence on literary productions in the late Middle Ages in Meyer, Medieval Allegory, p. 158. While she sees these artistic manifestations as “respon[ding]” to each other, and in particular the text as the “poetic
descendant” of the architectural construction (p. 140), the present study instead makes the case that the visual provides a language for articulating a process occurring in the verbal realm.
On the late-medieval “incarnational aesthetic,” see Gibson, Theater of Devotion, pp. 1–18.
Saint Augustine, De vera relig. 22.42. I draw here upon Eugene Vance’s discussion of Augustine’s doctrine in Mervelous Signals: Poetics and Sign Theory in the Middle Ages (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), pp. 45–47. See also Lawrence Rothfield, “Autobiography and Perspective in the Confessions of St. Augustine,” Comparative Literature 33.3 (1981): 211 [209–23], on Augustine’s use of the “verbalized epistemology” of the Incarnation as a way of understanding language’s capacity for representing the temporality and spatiality of autobiographical experience.
Chap. 3’s perspective on a play text as performed poetic occasion will elaborate further on this point.
Saint Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, ed. and trans. R.P.H. Green (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 2.2, p. 56. On Augustine’s sense of signs as things, which, “in addition to being things themselves, also refer to other things,” see Marcia L. Colish, The Mirror of Language: A Study in the Medieval Theory of Knowledge (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968), pp. 59–60.
On the reliquary’s function as memorial in literate culture, see Brian Stock’s discussion of Bernard of Angers and Sainte Foy of Conques in The Implications of Literacy: Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 70: “St. Foy’s statue, however it appeared to the literate, was not merely an oracle which one consulted blindly or an idol to which one made sacrifices. It was a likeness whose purpose was to keep alive the remembered record of a martyr (ob memoriam reverende martyris…simulacrum).”
See, for instance, Yrjö Hirn, The Sacred Shrine: A Study of the Poetry and Art of the Catholic Church (London: Macmillan, 1912), p. 44.
Hans Belting, Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image before the Era of Art, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), pp. 301–2.
Belting, Likeness and Presence, pp. 8–9. Belting specifies that his study deals with the image as the likeness of a person (p. xxi).
Jeffrey F. Hamburger, “The Place of Theology in Medieval Art History: Problems, Positions, Possibilities,” in TheMind’sEye, pp. 23–24 [11–31].
Bruce Holsinger points out that Derrida’s interest in the trace has its foundation in an intellectual tradition surrounding liturgy: “Derrida directly credits Levinas’s recent writings, and this liturgical essay in particular [’On the Trail of the Other’], for inspiring his own notion of the trace, the ‘absent present’ or ‘empty fullness’ of the signifier that has constituted one of the central terms in the lexicon of deconstruction.” See Holsinger,
The Premodern Condition: Medievalism and the Making of Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), p. 131.
On late-medieval England as a particular locus for the establishment and development of cycle drama, see, for instance, V.A. Kolve, The Play Called Corpus Christi (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966), pp. 37–38.
Burt Kimmelman, “Ockham, Chaucer, and the Emergence of a Modern Poetics,” in The Rhetorical Poetics of the Middle Ages: Reconstructive Polyphony: Essays in Honor of Robert O. Payne, ed. John M. Hill and Deborah M. Sinnreich-Levi (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2000), pp. 179–81 [177–205]. “The connection between philosophy and poetry was abundant and provocative in Chaucer’s time, as is typified by the development of the persona in fourteenth-century England, which could but only have been influenced by the Ockhamist debate” (pp. 182–83).
Edmund Reiss, “Ambiguous Signs and Authorial Deceptions in Fourteenth-Century Fictions,” in Sign, Sentence, Discourse, p. 114 [113–37].
Stanbury, The Visual Object, pp. 101–2.
Geoffrey Chaucer, The Book of the Duchess, ll. 321–27; ll. 332–34, in The Riverside Chaucer, ed. Larry D. Benson (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), p. 334; all subsequent passages will be cited in the text.
On the Sainte-Chapelle as a reliquary, see n. 1 in the introduction.
On Chaucerian ecphrasis in these texts, see Margaret Bridges, “The Picture in the Text: Ecphrasis as Self-Reflectivity in Chaucer’s Parliament of Fowls, Book of the Duchess, and House of Fame,” Word and Image 5 (1989): 151–58.
Eugene Vance, “Chaucer’s Pardoner: Relics, Discourse, and Frames of Propriety,” New Literary History 20 (1989): 726 [723–45].
See, for instance, Fiona Somerset and Nicholas Watson, eds., The Vulgar Tongue: Medieval and Postmedieval Vernacularity (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2003); Christopher Cannon, The Grounds of English Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); and Jocelyn Wogan-Brown, Nicholas Watson, Andrew Taylor, and Ruth Evans, eds., The Idea of the Vernacular: An Anthology of Middle English Literary Theory, 1280–1520 (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 1999).
Chap. 4, which discusses the dream vision Pearl, will elaborate on the potential of dream visions, as well as visionary literature more generally, to accommodate what poetic language as performative brings into being.
On dreaming’s role in language’s ability to create new realities, and on the ways that dreaming and language complicate the meaning of visuality, see Elaine Scarry, Dreaming by the Book (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999), p. 34. As Scarry explains, both dreaming (daydreaming, in her instance) and literary language “bring into being things not previously existing in the world.” But they differ in that the “verbal arts” also attempt to replace the “faintness” of dream vision with the “solidity…of the perceptible world.” In this difference, we can
see writing’s inclusion of “procedures for reproducing the deep structure of perception,” which “themselves have an instructional character that duplicates the ‘givenness’ of perception.”
A.C. Spearing, Medieval Dream Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 4–5.
Dream theory from the classical period and the Middle Ages is familiar to most medievalists mainly because of Chaucer’s frequent and varied explorations of the dream vision. Dreams in the Middle Ages were understood to occupy a number of different categories, such as Macrobius’s nightmares, his oracular and prophetic dreams, and his more enigmatic visions (Michael St. John, Chaucer’s Dream Visions: Courtliness and Individual Identity [Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2000], p. 6).
Peter Brown, “On the Borders of Middle English Dream Vision,” in Reading Dreams: The Interpretation of Dreams from Chaucer to Shakespeare, ed. Peter Brown (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 44 [22–50].
Brown, “On the Borders,” in Reading Dreams, p. 25.
Steven F. Kruger, Dreaming in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 129–30, 13–14.
Kathryn Lynch, “Baring Bottom: Shakespeare and the Chaucerian Dream Vision,” in Reading Dreams, pp. 118, 100 [99–124].
As John Ganim points out, performance as a defining aesthetic in Chaucer’s work problematizes the distinction between voiced and inscribed expression. Ganim, Chaucerian Theatricality, p. 122.
Suzanne Akbari discusses this interpretation of the knight’s self-characterization, and argues further that the white wall refers not simply to a surface of inscription, but instead to “the receptive imagination in the act of seeing.” In this sense as well, the knight’s body signifies not through voice but through image. Akbari, Seeing through the Veil: Optical Theory and Medieval Allegory (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), p. 191.
Vincent Gillespie, “Medieval Hypertext: Image and Text from York Minster,” in Of the Making of Books: Medieval Manuscripts, Their Scribes and Readers. Essays Presented to M.B. Parkes (Brookfield, VT: Ashgate, 1997), p. 207 [206–29].
Mary Carruthers, The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 229.
Carruthers, Book of Memory, p. 225.
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Chaganti, S. (2008). The Poetics of Enshrinement. In: The Medieval Poetics of the Reliquary. The New Middle Ages. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230615380_2
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