Abstract
Does Japanese public opinion influence political parties and ultimately shape foreign policy? It is common to dismiss the influence of public opinion in Japan. In contrast to American debates between elitists1 and pluralists,2 with respect to Japan the elitist view has dominated. Public opinion is often claimed to have had little influence on Japanese foreign policy, and public opinion is often seen as subject to elite molding.3
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Notes
Classic examples include Walter Lippmann, The Phantom Public (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1925 )
Gabriel Almond, The American People and Foreign Policy ( New York: Praeger, 1950 )
Gabriel Almond, “Public Opinion and National Security,” Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Summer 1956), pp. 371–8
Thomas A. Bailey, The Man in the Street: The Impact of American Public Opinion on Foreign Policy ( New York: Macmillan, 1948 )
Phillip E. Converse, “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics,” in David Apter, ed., Ideology and Discontent ( New York: Wiley, 1964 ), pp. 206–61
Michael Margolis and Gary Mauser, eds., Manipulating Public Opinion: Essays on Public Opinion as a Dependent Variable ( Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1989 )
Benjamin Ginsberg, The Captive Public: How Mass Opinion Promotes State Power ( New York: Basic Books, 1986 ).
Miroslav Nincic, “A Sensible Public: New Perspectives on Popular Opinion and Foreign Policy,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 36, No. 4 (1992), pp. 772–89
Miroslav Nincic, “The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Politics of Opposites,” World Politics, Vol. 40, No. 4 (July 1988), pp. 452–75
John E. Mueller, War, Presidents and Public Opinion ( New York: Wiley, 1973 )
Sidney Verba, Richard A. Brody, Edwin B. Parker, Norman H. Nie, Nelson W. Polsby, Paul Ekman, and Gordon S. Black, “Public Opinion and the War in Vietnam,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 61, No. 2 (June 1967), pp. 317–33
Bruce W. Jentleson, “The Pretty Prudent Public: Post Post-Vietnam American Opinion on the Use of Military Force,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 1 (March 1992), pp. 49–74
Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans’ Policy Preferences ( Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992 )
Ole R. Holsti, “Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: Challenges to the Almond–Lippmann Consensus,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 4 (December 1992), pp. 440–5.
Donald Hellman, Japanese Foreign Policy and Domestic Politics ( Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969 )
Chalmers Johnson, “Who Governs? An Essay on Official Bureaucracy,” in ed., Japan: Who Governs? The Rise of the Developmental State ( New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1995 ), pp. 115–40
Sheldon Garon, Molding Japanese Minds: The State in Everyday Life ( Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997 )
Glenn D. Hook, Militarisation and Demilitarisation in Contemporary Japan (New York: Routledge, 1996 ). For the argument that public opinion does matter in Japanese policy-making, see
Douglas H. Mendel, Jr., The Japanese People and Foreign Policy: A Study of Public Opinion in Post-Treaty Japan ( Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1971 )
Martin Weinstein, Japan’s Postwar Defense Policy, 1947–1968 ( New York: Columbia University Press, 1971 )
Akio Watanabe, “Japanese Public Opinion and Foreign Affairs: 1964–73,” in Robert Scalapino, ed., Foreign Policy of Modern Japan (Berkeley: University off California Press, 1977), pp. 105–45. A middle-level career Japanese diplomat saw Japanese public opinion toward foreign policy as being composed primarily of non-attitudes: “foreign-policy issues simply do not register.” Personal interview of March 28, 1994.
On this Asia-focused reassurance strategy, see Paul Midford, “The Logic of Reassurance and Japan’s Grand Strategy,” Security Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Spring 2002), pp. 1–43.
For a useful review, see J. Patrick Boyd and Richard J. Samuels, Nine Lives? The Politics of Constitutional Reform in Japan, Policy Studies #19 ( East–West Center, Washington, 2005 ).
See, e.g., Peter J. Herzog, Japan’s Pseudo-Democracy (Sandgate: Japan Library, 1993 )
Yumei Zhang, Pacific Asia: The Politics of Development (New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 60–71; and more generally
Karl Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power ( New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989 ).
Indeed, J.A.A. Stockwin refers LDP factions as “parties within a party.” See J.A.A. Stockwin, Governing Japan (London: Blackwell, 1999, 3rd. edition), p. 148.
Kurt T. Gaubatz, Elections and War: The Electoral Incentive in the Democratic Politics of War and Peace (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), p. 55, as cited by
Steve Chan and William Safran, “Public Opinion as a Constraint against War: Democracies’ Responses to Operation Iraqi Freedom,” Foreign Policy Analysis, Vol. 2, No. 2 (March 2006), pp. 137–56, esp. 149.
Peter J. Katzenstein, Cultural Norms and National Security: Police and Military in Postwar Japan (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996), p. 32; also see pp. 115–16.
Thomas P. Rohlen, “Order in Japanese Society: Attachment, Authority, and Routine,” Journal of Japanese Studies Vol. 15, No. 1 (1989), p. 16.
Davis B. Bobrow, “Japan in the World: Opinion from Defeat to Success,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 33, No. 4 (December 1989), p. 572.
Akio Watanabe, “Foreign Policy-Making, Japanese Style,” International Affairs, Vol. 54, No. 1 (January 1978), p. 80.
T.J. Pempel, “Japanese Democracy and Political Culture: A Comparative Perspective,” PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 25, No. 1 (March 1992), p. 11.
Ellis S. Krauss, “Conflict in the Diet: Toward Conflict Management in Parliamentary Politics,” in Ellis S. Krauss, Thomas P. Rohlen, and Patricia G. Steinhoff, eds., Conflict in Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984), p. 263. Also see Lijphart, Patterns of Democracy, p. 108.
Conachy, “Koizumi’s Election”; and Richard Katz, Japanese Phoenix: The Long Road to Economic Revival (Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2003 ), pp. 13–14.
For more on Yasukuni shrine, see John Nelson, “Social Memory as Ritual Practice: Commemorating Spirits of the Military Dead at Yasukuni Shinto Shrine,” Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 62, No. 2 (May 2003), pp. 445–67
Tetsuya Takahashi, Yasukuni Mondai (The Yasukuni Problem) ( Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 2005 ).
Paul Midford, “Japan’s Response to Terror: Sending the SDF to the Arabian Sea,” Asian Survey Vol. 43, No. 2 (March–April 2003), p. 337
Yukio Okamoto, “Mata Onaji Koto ni Naranai ka—Moshi Wangan Senso ga mo Ichido Okottara (Might the Same Thing Happen Again? What If the Gulf War Breaks Out Again?),” Gaiko Forum, No. 158 (September 2001), pp. 12–20
Matsuura Koichiro, “Sono Toki, Gaimushou ha do Taio Shitaka (How Did the Foreign Ministry React at that Time),” Gaiko Forum, No. 158 (September 2001), pp. 21–7.
For an extended discussion by Hiromi Kurisu, a former joint staff chairman of the SDF, forced to resign in 1978 for publicly advocating legislation covering SDF actions in the event of an armed attack, see Anzen Hosho Gairon (Tokyo: BBA, 1997), pp. 326, 334–9; and “Kore dewa Nihon ha Mamorenai,” Seiron (October 1991), pp. 50–9. In English, see Tetsuya Kataoka and Ramon H. Myers, Defending an Economic Superpower: Reassessing the U.S.–Japan Security Alliance (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989) pp. 72, 74
Peter J. Katzenstein and Nobuo Okawara, Japan’s National Security: Structures, Norms and Policy Responses in a Changing World (Ithaca: Cornell University East Asia Program, 1993), p. 51. Regarding several Japanese government studies on the issue from the late 1970s and early 1980s, see
Japanese Defense Agency, Defense of Japan 1999 ( Tokyo: Urban Connections, 1999 ), pp. 267–74.
Goro Hashimoto, “Japan Must Revise Constitution,” Daily Yomiuri, November 11, 2001.
Sam Jameson, “Japan’s Contradictory Help,” Japan Times, November 29, 2001.
On the Yoshida Doctrine, see Kenneth B. Pyle, Japan Rising: The Resurgence of Japanese Power and Purpose ( New York: Public Affairs, 2007 ), pp. 241–277.
Christopher Hughes, Japan’s Reemergence as a “Normal” Military Power, Adelphi Paper 368–9 (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 127.
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© 2008 Robert D. Eldridge and Paul Midford
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Midford, P., Scott, P. (2008). Japanese Political Parties Face Public Opinion: Leading, Responding, or Ignoring?. In: Eldridge, R.D., Midford, P. (eds) Japanese Public Opinion and the War on Terrorism. Palgrave Macmillan Series in International Political Communication. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230613836_5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230613836_5
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