Abstract
Policies regarding post-Cold War military interventions often posed difficult questions about who should intervene and whether action, to be legitimate, required support by the international community. They further revealed a conflict between national interest and support for international norms. Similarly, the history of economic intervention since the end of the Second World War has been shaped by the tension between profit and the interest of various states in exporting arms, on the one hand, and questions of principle related to limiting the proliferation of arms. In addition to various international agreements to stop the spread of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, economic sanctions have, particularly since the end of the Cold War, been an important tool for limiting the access of dangerous regimes to WMD. Decisions to sell arms to another country, that is, engagement in the arms trade, are no less interventions that shape the potential or likelihood of war than decisions to withhold arms or military equipment, as a form of economic sanction.
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Notes
Meghan L. O’Sullivan, Shrewd Sanctions: Economic Statecraft in an Age of Global Terrorism (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2003), p. 18.
Michael Brzoska and Frederic Pearson, Arms and Warfare: Escalation, De-escalation and Negotiations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Frederic Pearson, Michael Brzoska, and Christopher Crantz, “The Effect of Arms Transfers on Wars and Peace Negotiations,” in Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook 1992: Armaments and Disarmament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
Cassady B. Craft, Weapons for Peace, Weapons for War (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 1.
Miles Wolpin, America Insecure: Arms Transfers, Global Interventionism and the Erosion of National Security (London: McFarland and Company, 1991); William Hartung, And Weapons for All: How America’s Multibillion Dollar Arms Trade Warps our Foreign Policy and Subverts Democracy at Home (New York: Harper and Collins, 1994); Craft, Weapons for Peace, p. 153.
Wolpin, America Insecure; Hartung, And Weapons for All; David Louscher and Michael Salamone, “The Imperative for a New Look at Arms Sales,” in David Louscher and Michael Salamone, eds, Marketing Security Assistance: New Perspectives on Arms Sales (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1987).
Lora Lumpe, ed., Running Guns: The Global Black Market in Small Arms (London: Zed Books, 2000), p. 3. See also: Graduate Institute of International Studies, Small Arms Survey 2001: Profiling the Problem (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); John Sislen and Frederic S. Pearson, Arms and Ethnic Conflict (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2001); and Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars, chapter 5, “The Globalised War Economy.”
Mark Phythian, The Politics of British Arms Sales since 1964 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), p. 3.
Geoff Simons, Imposing Economic Sanctions (London: Pluto Press, 1999).
Stephan Chan and A. Cooper Drury, ed., Sanctions as Economic Statecart: Theory and Practice (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2000), p. 2. For further reading on economic sanctions, see: Gary Clyde Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott, and Kimberly Ann Elliot, Reforming Economic Sanctions (Washington, DC: The Institute for International Economics, 2000); Richard N. Haass and Meghan L. O’Sullivan, eds, Honey and Vinegar: Incentives, Sanctions and Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001); Sarah Graham Brown, Sanctioning Saddam (New York: IB Taurus, 1999); Richard Haas, Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1998); Thomas Weiss et al., eds, Political Gain and Civilian Pain: Humanitarian Impacts of Economic Sanctions (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997).
The actual quote was “We shut their doors and lock them in ... they are absolutely boycotted by the rest of mankind. I do not think that after that remedy it will be necessary to do any fighting at all.” As quoted in David Hunt Miller, Drafting of the Covenant (New York: GP Putnam’s Sons, 1928), p. 570.
David Cortright and George Lopez, eds, Smart Sanctions: Targeting Economic Statecraft (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002), p. 5.
For further reading on economic sanctions against Rhodesia, see: David M. Row, Manipulating the Market: Understanding Economic Sanctions, Institutional Change and the Political Unity of White Rhodesia (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2001); Leonard T. Kapunga, United Nations and Economic Sanctions against Rhodesia (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 1973); Donald L. Losman, International Economic Sanctions: The Cases of Cuba, Israel and Rhodesia (Albuqerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1979); and Robert Baldwin Sutcliffe, Sanctions against Rhodesia: The Economic Background (London: Africa Bureau, 1966).
“Applicability of International Law Standards to UN Economic Sanctions Programmes,” European Journal of International Law, http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vo19,Nol/art4–03.html
Margaret P. Doxey, International Sanctions in Contemporary Perspective (London: Macmillan, 1987), p. 46.
Gary Clyde Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott, and Kimberly Ann Elliott, Economic Sanctions Reconsidered, Volume II, Supplemental Case Histories (Washington, DC: Institute for Economic Sanctions, 1990), p. 292.
For further reading on economic sanctions against South Africa, see: Richard Moorsom, Scope for Sanctions: Economic Measures against South Africa (London: Catholic Institute for International Relations, 1986); Mark Orken, Sanctions against Apartheid (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990); Audie Klotz et al., eds, How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1999); Robert R. Edgar, SanctioningApartheid (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1990); Joe Hanlon, ed., South Africa: The Sanctions Report (London: Commonwealth Secretariat in Association with James Currey, 1990), and George W. Shepherd, Effective Sanctions on South Africa: The Cutting Edge of Economic Intervention (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991).
For a discussion of the disinvestment campaign, see: Jennifer Davis, “Sanctions and Apartheid: The Economic Challenge to Discrimination,” in David Cortright and George A. Lopez, Economic Sanctions: Panacea or Peacebuilding in a Post—Cold War World? (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995).
http://www.australianpolitics.com/executive/howard/pre-2002/991112 howardmandela.shtml. See also: Nelson Mandela’s Statement to the UN, New York, September 24, 1993.
The political movements include the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, UNITA in Angola, the Revolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone, and the Taliban in Afghanistan. See: David Cortright and George A. Lopez, The Sanctions Decade: Assessing UN Strategies in the 1990s (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2000).
O’Sullivan, Shrewd Sanctions, p. 17.
For a discussion of the broader context of sanctions against Serbia, see: S. Licht, “The Use of Sanctions in the Former Yugoslavia: Can they Assist in Conflict Resolution?” in Cortright and Lopez, Economic Sanctions; J. Stedman, “The Former Yugoslavia,” in Richard Haass, ed., Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1998); and S. L. Woodward, “The Use of Sanctions in Former Yugoslavia: Misunderstanding Political Realities,” in Cortright and Lopez, eds, Economic Sanctions.
For further readings on economic sanctions against Haiti, see: Elizabeth D. Gibbons, Sanctions in Haiti: Human Rights and Democracy under Assault (New York: Greenwood Press, 1999); Weiss, Cortright, Lopez and Minear, Political Gain and Civilian Pain; Cortright and Lopez, eds., Economic Sanctions.
“Applicability of International Law Standards to UN Economic Sanctions Programmes,” European Journal of International Law, http://www.ejil.org/j ournal/Vo19,No 1/art4–03. html
“Sanctions: Children Hard Hit in Haiti,” Children In War: The State of the World’s Children 1996, http://www.unicef.org/sowc96/dsanctions.htm
For further reading on economic sanctions against Iraq, see: R. Thomas Naylor, Economic Warfare: Sanctions, Embargo Busing and their Human Cost (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 2001); Tim Niblock, Pariah States and Sanctions in the Middle East: Iraq, Libya and Sudan (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002); Abbas Alnasrawi, Iraq’s Burdens: Oil, Sanctions and Underdevelopment (New York: Greenwood Press, 2002); Simons, Imposing Economic Sanctions; Anthony Arnove, Iraq Under Siege; and Brown, Sanctioning Saddam.
Many accusations, particularly from the USA and the UK, have been leveled at Saddam Hussein in this regard. For instance, he has been accused of building presidential palaces, a stadium, and a lavish safari park while his people were suffering. The US government claimed that, under the Oil for Food program, he failed to order adequate baby foods, to order pulses-a main ingredient of Iraqi diets-and even of exporting food. UK Minister of Defense George Robertson accused Iraq of preventing medical supplies in Iraqi warehouses from reaching the population. See, respectively: Patrick Laws, “A Look at Sanctioning Iraq: The Numbers Don’t Lie, Saddam Does,” The Washington Post, February 27, 2000; US Department of State, “Saddam Hussein’s Iraq,” September 13, 1999, http://usinfo.state.govregional/neairaqiraq99.htm and George Robertson, “Bombing Iraq, Letter,” The Times, (London), March 6, 1999. It has been argued that many of these allegations proved to be unfounded or were based on misrepresentation and part of a campaign of vilification. See, for instance, Global Policy Forum “Iraq Sanctions: Humanitarian Implications and Options for the Future,” August 6, 2002, http://www.globalpoiicy.org/securitysanction/iraql/2002/paper.htm
Peter Pellett, “Sanctions, Food, Nutrition and Health in Iraq,” in A. Arnove, Iraq Under Seige (London: Pluto Press, 2000), p. 151.
For a discussion of the effects of sanctions on Iraqi children, see: G. Simons, The Scourging of Iraq: Sanctions, Law and Natural Justice, 2nd edn (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), pp. 127–8.
For an overview of issues raised by the Ethical Foreign Policy, see: Karen E. Smith and Margot Light, eds, Ethics and Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
Foreign and Commonwealth Office, “Speech by the Foreign Secretary: Human Rights into a New Century,” Daily Bulletin, July 17, 1997.
Robin Cook, “Britain is Ready to Pursue Justice in East Timor,” The Observer, September 19, 1999.
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© 2005 K. M. Fierke
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Fierke, K.M. (2005). Economic Interventions. In: Diplomatic Interventions. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230509917_6
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