Skip to main content
  • 83 Accesses

Abstract

With a peacekeeping mission, the UN enters the civil war conflict environment. But despite their helmets, side arms, and APCs, the peacekeepers’ function remains more diplomatic than military. Their purpose is to work with the belligerents, rather than to compel them using offensive military action. This basic fact, as in mediation missions, means that the existence of underlying structural weaknesses can jeopardize the mission’s ultimate success. Such weaknesses can be even more problematical when directly exposed to the conflict dynamic, and their consequent vulnerability to more complex forms of exploitation and aggravation by the less co-operative belligerents. This chapter searches for the presence of these weaknesses and the effects of their exposure to a civil war dynamic in a failed peacekeeping mission. It then tests a successful mission for the absence of these weaknesses or the mission’s escape from the effects of the conflict dynamic.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Notes

  1. International Peace Academy, Peacekeeper’s Handbook (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984), p. 22.

    Google Scholar 

  2. William J. Durch, ‘Introduction’, in William J. Durch (ed.), The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis (London: Macmillan, 1994), p. 4.

    Google Scholar 

  3. John Gerard Ruggie, ‘Wandering in the Void’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 5, November/December 1993, p. 29.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Ramesh Thakur, ‘From Great Power Collective Security to Middle Power Peacekeeping’, in Hugh Smith (ed.), Australia and Peacekeeping (Canberra, ADSC, 1990), p. 8.

    Google Scholar 

  5. See Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Agenda for Peace (New York: United Nations, 1992), p. 6.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Somalis all belong to the same ethnic group, have a common religion, and speak the same language. Somali society is therefore organized around various territorially based clans or sub-clans, between which there has been a history of incessant feuding and warfare. Featuring all of the closeness and often chauvinism of ethnic groups, inter-clan warfare in Somalia showed itself to be every bit as desperate and bloody as inter-ethnic conflict elsewhere. See Abdi Ismael Samatar, ‘Destruction of State and Society in Somalia: Beyond the Tribal Convention’, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 30, No. 4, 1992, pp. 625–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Kenneth Freed, ‘Chewing the Fat, With a Side of Qat’, Los Angeles Times, 26 December 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Mark Yost, ‘A Short History of Somalia’, Wall Street Journal, 19 October 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Rakiya Omaar, ‘Somalia: At War With Itself’, Current History, Vol. 91, No. 565, May 1992, p. 233;

    Google Scholar 

  10. For the concept of the security dilemma in ethnic conflicts see Barry R. Posen, ‘The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict’, Survival, Vol. 35, No. 1, Spring 1993, pp. 27–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Bernard Morris, ‘Somali Mercy Mission Turns Into a Bloodbath’, Sunday Times, 28 February 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Robert M. Press, ‘UN Pursues Talks With Somali Clans’, Christian Science Monitor, 22 September 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  13. John Gerard Ruggie, ‘Wandering in the Void: Chartering the UN’s New Strategic Role’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 5, November/December 1993, p. 29.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Peter Biles, ‘Anarchy Rules’, Africa Report, Vol. 37, No. 4, July/August 1992, p. 32.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Rakiya Omaar, ‘Somalia: At War With Itself’, Current History, Vol. 91, No. 565, May 1992, p. 234.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Mark Huband, ‘When Yankee Goes Home’, Africa Report, Vol. 38, No. 2, March/April 1993, p. 23.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Ali Mandi Mohammed openly encouraged IJNOSOM H attacks against Aideed, repeatedly claiming that Aideed’s arrest was the only realistic avenue to peace in Somalia. See Robert Block, ‘Former Envoy Criticises UN Actions in Somalia’, The Independent, 16 June 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Brigadier M.B. Page, ‘Somalia: background and prospects’, RUST Journal, October 1993, p. 11.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Captain Johnson of the US contingent of the UNITAF Force, quoted in Geoffrey York, ‘Somalia’s Bloody Web of Clanship’, Scotland on Sunday, 21 February 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  20. See Mark Huband, ‘UN Troops Kill Protesters’, The Guardian, 14 June 1993; hostility reached such a level in Mogadishu that a group calling itself Muslim Voice was distributing leaflets urging Somalis to ‘kill all foreigners’, and Somalis working for the UN in Mogadishu were ritually executed.

    Google Scholar 

  21. See Peter Hiilmore, ‘UN Succumbs to the Curse of Somalia’, The Observer, 18 July 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Jonathon Stevenson, ‘Hope Restored in Somalia?’, Foreign Policy, No. 91, Summer 1993, p. 149.

    Google Scholar 

  23. UN Official, quoted in Keith Richburg, ‘Marines “Ready” For UN Handover’, The Guardian, 5 February 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  24. See Leslie H. Gelb, ‘US Forces Should Go To Somalia’, International Herald Tribune, 20 November 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Admiral Jonathon T. Howe, quoted in Mark Huband, ‘The Politics of Violence’, Africa Report, Vol. 38, No. 5, September/October 1993, p. 18.

    Google Scholar 

  26. See, for example Mark Huband, ‘Italians “Failed to Help Fellow UN Troops”’, The Guardian, 6 September 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  27. For the problems of mounting an urban counter-insurgency, see Jennifer Morrison Taw and Bruce Hoffman, The Urbanisation of Insurgency: The Potential Challenge to US Army Operations (Santa Monica: RAND, 1994).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Caleb Baker, ‘Manhunt for Aideed: Why the Rangers Came Up Empty-Handed’, Armed Forces Journal, December 1993, p. 18.

    Google Scholar 

  29. See Richard Dowden, ‘UN Troops Died “Trying to Take Somali Radio Station”’, The Independent, 8 June 1993;

    Google Scholar 

  30. Richard Ellis, ‘Can “Delta Farce” Now Get It Right?’, Sunday Times, 5 September 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  31. In one incident after the attack on the Pakistanis, Pakistani troops fired into a rioting crowd, killing 14 civilians. See Nicholas Hinton, ‘UN’s Humanitarian Goal Lost in the Smoke of Battle’, The Guardian, 14 June 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  32. In a dawn raid on what was thought to be a USC-SNA safe house on 30 August 1993, 400 US Rangers and the elite Delta Force seized personnel from the UNDP, and French volunteers serving with Action Against Hunger. See Martin Walker, ‘UN Raid “Not a Mistake”’, The Guardian, 31 August 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Mats Berdal, ‘Fateful Encounter: The United States and UN Peacekeeping’, Survival, Vol. 36, No. 1, Spring 1994, pp. 30–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Frances Harris and Bruce Johnston, ‘Italians Join Rush to Pull Out of UN Forces’, Daily Telegraph, 14 October 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Italy, France, Belgium, Sweden, Norway, and Germany all withdrew or threatened to withdraw their contingents, and following the battle of Bakhara Market, the US pledged to withdraw its contingent by March 1994. See Peter Hillmore, ‘UN Succumbs to the Curse of Somalia’, The Observer, 18 July 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  36. In particular, the Italian contingent under General Bruno Loi, later relieved of his command by the UN, refused to take part in offensive operations. See David Willey, ‘Rome Bestows Laurels on the General Who Won’t Hit Back’, The Observer, 18 July 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  37. In September 1993, the Nigerian contingent accused the Italian contingent of failing to provide assistance when it was ambushed by USC-SNA forces. See Mark Huband, ‘Italians “Failed to Help Fellow UN Troops”’, The Guardian, 6 September 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Scott Peterson, ‘UN Draws Up Deadline to Quit Somalia’, Daily Telegraph, 27 September 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  39. See Paul L. Moorcraft, African Nemisis: War and Revolution in Southern Africa (London: Brasseys, 1984);

    Google Scholar 

  40. Abiodun Alao, Brothers at War (London: British Academic Press, 1994).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Robert Jasper, ‘Mozambique: Whose Interests do the Saboteurs Serve?’, International Herald Tribune, 20 June 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Victoria Brittain, ‘Rebels Without a Cause’, The Guardian, 22 April 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Emily MacFarquhar, ‘The Killing Fields of Mozambique’, U.S. News and World Report, 2 May 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  44. E.A. Wayne, ‘Mozambique Rebels Deny Charges of Civilian Abuses’, Christian Science Monitor, 25 April 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Peter G. Hemsch, ‘How Mozambique’s Guns Were Silenced’, Christian Science Monitor, 7 October 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), pp. 565–7.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Thomas H. Henriksen, Revolution and Counterrevolution: Mozambique’s War of Independence 1964–1974 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983), pp. 195–7.

    Google Scholar 

  48. M. Hall and T. Young, ‘Recent Constitutional Developments in Mozambique’, Journal of African Law, Vol. 35, Nos. 1–2, 1991, p. 107.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Tom Young, ‘The MNR/Renamo: External and Internal Dynamics’, African Affairs, Vol. 89, No. 357, October 1990, p. 501.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Mario Azaredo, Historical Dictionary of Mozambique (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1991), p. 110.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Quoted in Chris Alden and Mark Simpson, ‘Mozambique: A Delicate Peace’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1993, p. 122.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Peter G. Hemsch, ‘How Mozambique’s Guns Were Silenced’, Christian Science Monitor, 7 October 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Alex Vines, Renamo: Terrorism in Mozambique (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 131.

    Google Scholar 

  54. See Chris McGreal, ‘Renamo Puts £66 m Price on Keeping Peace’, The Guardian, 10 June 1993;

    Google Scholar 

  55. Bamaby Phillips, ‘Mozambique Leader Lifts Threat to Boycott Poll’, Daily Telegraph, 21 September 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Andrew Meldrum, ‘Peace At Last’, Africa Report, Vol. 38, No. 2, March/April 1993, p. 49.

    Google Scholar 

  57. David Beresford, ‘Mozambican Rebels Make Peace Pledge’, The Guardian, 27 October 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  58. UNDPI, ‘Mozambique: Out of the Ruins of War’, Africa Recovery Briefing Paper No. 8, May 1993, p. 13.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Barnaby Phillips, ‘Mozambique Leader Lifts Threat to Boycott Poll’, Daily Telegraph, 21 September 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  60. David Beresford, ‘Mozambican Rebels Make Peace Pledge’, The Guardian, 27 October 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Martin Walker, ‘UN To Remain After Election’, The Guardian, 15 October 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Patrick Brogan, World Conflicts: Why and Where They Are Happening (London: Bloomsbury, 1992), pp. 65–6.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Karl Maier, ‘Between Washington and Pretoria’, Africa Report, Vol. 33, No. 6, November–December 1988, p. 44.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Copyright information

© 1997 Michael Wesley

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Wesley, M. (1997). Peacekeeping. In: Casualties of the New World Order. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230391055_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics