Abstract
With a peacekeeping mission, the UN enters the civil war conflict environment. But despite their helmets, side arms, and APCs, the peacekeepers’ function remains more diplomatic than military. Their purpose is to work with the belligerents, rather than to compel them using offensive military action. This basic fact, as in mediation missions, means that the existence of underlying structural weaknesses can jeopardize the mission’s ultimate success. Such weaknesses can be even more problematical when directly exposed to the conflict dynamic, and their consequent vulnerability to more complex forms of exploitation and aggravation by the less co-operative belligerents. This chapter searches for the presence of these weaknesses and the effects of their exposure to a civil war dynamic in a failed peacekeeping mission. It then tests a successful mission for the absence of these weaknesses or the mission’s escape from the effects of the conflict dynamic.
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Notes
International Peace Academy, Peacekeeper’s Handbook (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984), p. 22.
William J. Durch, ‘Introduction’, in William J. Durch (ed.), The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis (London: Macmillan, 1994), p. 4.
John Gerard Ruggie, ‘Wandering in the Void’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 5, November/December 1993, p. 29.
Ramesh Thakur, ‘From Great Power Collective Security to Middle Power Peacekeeping’, in Hugh Smith (ed.), Australia and Peacekeeping (Canberra, ADSC, 1990), p. 8.
See Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Agenda for Peace (New York: United Nations, 1992), p. 6.
Somalis all belong to the same ethnic group, have a common religion, and speak the same language. Somali society is therefore organized around various territorially based clans or sub-clans, between which there has been a history of incessant feuding and warfare. Featuring all of the closeness and often chauvinism of ethnic groups, inter-clan warfare in Somalia showed itself to be every bit as desperate and bloody as inter-ethnic conflict elsewhere. See Abdi Ismael Samatar, ‘Destruction of State and Society in Somalia: Beyond the Tribal Convention’, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 30, No. 4, 1992, pp. 625–41.
Kenneth Freed, ‘Chewing the Fat, With a Side of Qat’, Los Angeles Times, 26 December 1992.
Mark Yost, ‘A Short History of Somalia’, Wall Street Journal, 19 October 1993.
Rakiya Omaar, ‘Somalia: At War With Itself’, Current History, Vol. 91, No. 565, May 1992, p. 233;
For the concept of the security dilemma in ethnic conflicts see Barry R. Posen, ‘The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict’, Survival, Vol. 35, No. 1, Spring 1993, pp. 27–47.
Bernard Morris, ‘Somali Mercy Mission Turns Into a Bloodbath’, Sunday Times, 28 February 1993.
Robert M. Press, ‘UN Pursues Talks With Somali Clans’, Christian Science Monitor, 22 September 1993.
John Gerard Ruggie, ‘Wandering in the Void: Chartering the UN’s New Strategic Role’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 5, November/December 1993, p. 29.
Peter Biles, ‘Anarchy Rules’, Africa Report, Vol. 37, No. 4, July/August 1992, p. 32.
Rakiya Omaar, ‘Somalia: At War With Itself’, Current History, Vol. 91, No. 565, May 1992, p. 234.
Mark Huband, ‘When Yankee Goes Home’, Africa Report, Vol. 38, No. 2, March/April 1993, p. 23.
Ali Mandi Mohammed openly encouraged IJNOSOM H attacks against Aideed, repeatedly claiming that Aideed’s arrest was the only realistic avenue to peace in Somalia. See Robert Block, ‘Former Envoy Criticises UN Actions in Somalia’, The Independent, 16 June 1993.
Brigadier M.B. Page, ‘Somalia: background and prospects’, RUST Journal, October 1993, p. 11.
Captain Johnson of the US contingent of the UNITAF Force, quoted in Geoffrey York, ‘Somalia’s Bloody Web of Clanship’, Scotland on Sunday, 21 February 1993.
See Mark Huband, ‘UN Troops Kill Protesters’, The Guardian, 14 June 1993; hostility reached such a level in Mogadishu that a group calling itself Muslim Voice was distributing leaflets urging Somalis to ‘kill all foreigners’, and Somalis working for the UN in Mogadishu were ritually executed.
See Peter Hiilmore, ‘UN Succumbs to the Curse of Somalia’, The Observer, 18 July 1993.
Jonathon Stevenson, ‘Hope Restored in Somalia?’, Foreign Policy, No. 91, Summer 1993, p. 149.
UN Official, quoted in Keith Richburg, ‘Marines “Ready” For UN Handover’, The Guardian, 5 February 1993.
See Leslie H. Gelb, ‘US Forces Should Go To Somalia’, International Herald Tribune, 20 November 1992.
Admiral Jonathon T. Howe, quoted in Mark Huband, ‘The Politics of Violence’, Africa Report, Vol. 38, No. 5, September/October 1993, p. 18.
See, for example Mark Huband, ‘Italians “Failed to Help Fellow UN Troops”’, The Guardian, 6 September 1993.
For the problems of mounting an urban counter-insurgency, see Jennifer Morrison Taw and Bruce Hoffman, The Urbanisation of Insurgency: The Potential Challenge to US Army Operations (Santa Monica: RAND, 1994).
Caleb Baker, ‘Manhunt for Aideed: Why the Rangers Came Up Empty-Handed’, Armed Forces Journal, December 1993, p. 18.
See Richard Dowden, ‘UN Troops Died “Trying to Take Somali Radio Station”’, The Independent, 8 June 1993;
Richard Ellis, ‘Can “Delta Farce” Now Get It Right?’, Sunday Times, 5 September 1993.
In one incident after the attack on the Pakistanis, Pakistani troops fired into a rioting crowd, killing 14 civilians. See Nicholas Hinton, ‘UN’s Humanitarian Goal Lost in the Smoke of Battle’, The Guardian, 14 June 1993.
In a dawn raid on what was thought to be a USC-SNA safe house on 30 August 1993, 400 US Rangers and the elite Delta Force seized personnel from the UNDP, and French volunteers serving with Action Against Hunger. See Martin Walker, ‘UN Raid “Not a Mistake”’, The Guardian, 31 August 1993.
Mats Berdal, ‘Fateful Encounter: The United States and UN Peacekeeping’, Survival, Vol. 36, No. 1, Spring 1994, pp. 30–50.
Frances Harris and Bruce Johnston, ‘Italians Join Rush to Pull Out of UN Forces’, Daily Telegraph, 14 October 1993.
Italy, France, Belgium, Sweden, Norway, and Germany all withdrew or threatened to withdraw their contingents, and following the battle of Bakhara Market, the US pledged to withdraw its contingent by March 1994. See Peter Hillmore, ‘UN Succumbs to the Curse of Somalia’, The Observer, 18 July 1993.
In particular, the Italian contingent under General Bruno Loi, later relieved of his command by the UN, refused to take part in offensive operations. See David Willey, ‘Rome Bestows Laurels on the General Who Won’t Hit Back’, The Observer, 18 July 1993.
In September 1993, the Nigerian contingent accused the Italian contingent of failing to provide assistance when it was ambushed by USC-SNA forces. See Mark Huband, ‘Italians “Failed to Help Fellow UN Troops”’, The Guardian, 6 September 1993.
Scott Peterson, ‘UN Draws Up Deadline to Quit Somalia’, Daily Telegraph, 27 September 1994.
See Paul L. Moorcraft, African Nemisis: War and Revolution in Southern Africa (London: Brasseys, 1984);
Abiodun Alao, Brothers at War (London: British Academic Press, 1994).
Robert Jasper, ‘Mozambique: Whose Interests do the Saboteurs Serve?’, International Herald Tribune, 20 June 1985.
Victoria Brittain, ‘Rebels Without a Cause’, The Guardian, 22 April 1991.
Emily MacFarquhar, ‘The Killing Fields of Mozambique’, U.S. News and World Report, 2 May 1988.
E.A. Wayne, ‘Mozambique Rebels Deny Charges of Civilian Abuses’, Christian Science Monitor, 25 April 1988.
Peter G. Hemsch, ‘How Mozambique’s Guns Were Silenced’, Christian Science Monitor, 7 October 1992.
Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), pp. 565–7.
Thomas H. Henriksen, Revolution and Counterrevolution: Mozambique’s War of Independence 1964–1974 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983), pp. 195–7.
M. Hall and T. Young, ‘Recent Constitutional Developments in Mozambique’, Journal of African Law, Vol. 35, Nos. 1–2, 1991, p. 107.
Tom Young, ‘The MNR/Renamo: External and Internal Dynamics’, African Affairs, Vol. 89, No. 357, October 1990, p. 501.
Mario Azaredo, Historical Dictionary of Mozambique (New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1991), p. 110.
Quoted in Chris Alden and Mark Simpson, ‘Mozambique: A Delicate Peace’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1993, p. 122.
Peter G. Hemsch, ‘How Mozambique’s Guns Were Silenced’, Christian Science Monitor, 7 October 1992.
Alex Vines, Renamo: Terrorism in Mozambique (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 131.
See Chris McGreal, ‘Renamo Puts £66 m Price on Keeping Peace’, The Guardian, 10 June 1993;
Bamaby Phillips, ‘Mozambique Leader Lifts Threat to Boycott Poll’, Daily Telegraph, 21 September 1994.
Andrew Meldrum, ‘Peace At Last’, Africa Report, Vol. 38, No. 2, March/April 1993, p. 49.
David Beresford, ‘Mozambican Rebels Make Peace Pledge’, The Guardian, 27 October 1994.
UNDPI, ‘Mozambique: Out of the Ruins of War’, Africa Recovery Briefing Paper No. 8, May 1993, p. 13.
Barnaby Phillips, ‘Mozambique Leader Lifts Threat to Boycott Poll’, Daily Telegraph, 21 September 1994.
David Beresford, ‘Mozambican Rebels Make Peace Pledge’, The Guardian, 27 October 1994.
Martin Walker, ‘UN To Remain After Election’, The Guardian, 15 October 1994.
Patrick Brogan, World Conflicts: Why and Where They Are Happening (London: Bloomsbury, 1992), pp. 65–6.
Karl Maier, ‘Between Washington and Pretoria’, Africa Report, Vol. 33, No. 6, November–December 1988, p. 44.
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© 1997 Michael Wesley
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Wesley, M. (1997). Peacekeeping. In: Casualties of the New World Order. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230391055_3
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