Abstract
International law encourages, but does not require, governments to follow a strictly effectivist recognition policy. The resulting discretion in the timing and reasons for them creates the possibility of using recognition decisions for political purposes. Most legal scholars have paid some attention to this activity, mainly to condemn it as introducing elements of arbitrariness that do not belong in a well-ordered recognition process. Students of the foreign policy or the expansionist impulses of individual states have paid more attention, but they generally focus on one particular government’s activity rather than on comparison across governments or historical eras.
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Notes
For a general discussion, see Wolfers, ‘The Goals of Foreign Policy’, in Discord and Collaboration (1962), ch. 5
for particular examples of international order-building motivated by such considerations see Burley, ‘Regulating the World’ (1993)
and Kissinger, A World Restored (1957).
Australian Foreign Ministry announcement, 19 January 1988 in Australian YBIL, 11: 205
British government statement, 28 April 1980 in British YBIL, 51: 367 (1980)
Dutch government statement of 4 July 1990 in Netherlands YBIL, 22: 237–8 (1991)
US State Department memorandum, ‘Diplomatic Recognition’, Department of State Bulletin, 77: 462–3 (10 Oct. 1977).
Padelford, International Law and Diplomacy in the Spanish Civil Strife (1939): 17.
Recognitions noted in Ann.française, 1969: 947–51.
Tripathi, India’s Foreign Policy (1990): 124.
Houghton, ‘Policy of the United States’ (1929): 96.
Gemma, ‘Les Gouvernements de fait’ (1929): 341
Oppenheim, International Law (2nd edn, 1912), vol. 1: 426.
Smith, Great Britain and the Law of Nations (1932), vol. 2: 231–3.
Mirkine-Guetzévitch, ‘Droit international et droit constitutionnel’ (1931): 338.
Houghton, ‘Policy of the United States and other Nations’ (1929): 90–4 and 105, n. 99.
Burckhardt, Le droit fédérale suisse (1930), vol. 1: 189.
All known examples accompanied recognition of new states. Chen, Recognition (1951): 265–9 discusses nineteenth-century and interwar examples in detail.
Scelle, ‘Chronique des faits internationaux: Mexique’ (1914): 129
Despagnet, Cours (1905): 96.
Dom Miguel refused the trade, Smith, Great Britain and the Law of Nations (1932), vol. 1: 179. The British then reverted to supporting Dona Maria and the constitutionalists.
Sharp, Nonrecognition as a Legal Obligation (1934): 43–5.
Sharp, Nonrecognition as a Legal Obligation (1934): 45–6.
Albrecht-Carrié, Diplomatic History of Europe (1958): 119–21.
Dennis, ‘Revolution, Recognition and Intervention’ (1930–1): 207
Goebel, ‘The Recognition Policy’ (1915): 67
Baty, Canons (1930): 212
Scelle, Manuel (1943): 122
Anderson, ‘Recognition of Russia’ (1925): 519.
Kunz, Anerkennung (1928): 162 said they could be used with de facto recognition only
Brown, ‘La Reconnaissance’ (1934): 349 said they could only be used with de jure recognition.
E.g. Spiropoulos, Traité (1933): 50; Bustamante y Sirven (1934), vol. 1: 169.
Lauterpacht, Recognition (1947): 350, note 2.
Chen, Recognition (1951): 102
and Kozhevnikov, International Law (1961): 121 said this was accomplished by withdrawing recognition from the provisional government until a republic was definitively established.
A few observers regarded this as a novel form of recognizing despite doubts that the new regime would abide by international law. See statements quoted in Brown, ‘Legal Effects’ (1950): 625.
Letter of 30 November 1933, quoted in Whiteman, Digest, vol. 2: 123–4. Texts of the agreements are given in FRUS, The Soviet Union, 1933–1939 (1952): 28–29.
Report to the Third Party Congress, 13 May 1925, reported in Degras, Soviet Documents (1951), vol. 2: 30–1.
Chen, Recognition (1951): 285–8. Danish claims of compensation for expropriations added to the dispute.
Taracouzio, The Soviet Union and International Law (1935), Appendix XIV.
Toynbee and Kirkwood, Turkey (1927), ch. 9.
Iriye, After Imperialism (1965): pp. 87–8.
Reynolds, ‘Recognition Policy’ (1928): 62.
K’ung Meng ‘A Criticism’ (1958) in Cohen and Chiu, People’s China and International Law, vol. 1: 246
Sibert, Traité (1951): 192
Oppenheim, International Law (8th edn, 1958), vol. 1: 148–9
Cavaré, Le droit (1961), vol. 1: 325
implied in Kozhevnikov, International Law (1961): 114–20
Coquia and Santiago, Public International Law (1984): 115.
Lauterpacht, Recognition (1947): 364
Azevedo, Aspects généraux (1953): 37
Kopelmanas, ‘La Reconnaissance’ (1957): 8–9
Hingorani, Modern International Law (1984), 88
Starke, Introduction (1984): 132.
Chen, Recognition (1951): 267–9
Mugerwa, ‘Subjects’ (1968): 282
Dahm, Völkerrecht (1958), vol. 1: 146–7.
Kelsen, Principles (1952): 275
Guggenheim, Traité (1953), vol. 1: 196–7
Verdross, Völkerrecht (4th edn, 1959): 252
Tandon, Public International Law (1965): 152
Brownlie, Principles (1966): 86.
Starke, ‘Recognition’ (1950): 19
Schwarzenberger, A Manual (1960), vol. 1: 62
Delbez, Les Principes (1964): 1964
O’Connell, International Law (1964), vol. 1: 147
Fenwick, International Law (4th edn, 1965): 583
Salonga and Yap, Public International Law (1966): 96–7
Verhoeven, La Reconnaissance (1975): 651–6.
Starke, ‘Recognition’ (1950): 19.
Erasmus, ‘General de Gaulle’s Recognition’ (1964): 196–7.
Menon, ‘Some Aspects, V’ (1991): 29–31.
Oppenheim, International Law (9th edn, 1992), vol. 1: 154.
Kapoor, International Law (1992): 169
Oppenheim, International Law (9th edn, 1992), vol. 1: 175
Menon, ‘Some Aspects, V’ (1991): 29–31.
Schlüter, De facto Anerkennung (1936): 44–5.
They did succeed in holding Helsinki for three months. Puntilla, Political History of Finland (1968): 102–9. Arto Mansala supplied this example.
Degras, Soviet Documents on Foreign Policy, 1917–1941 (1951): 405–47.
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© 1997 M. J. Peterson
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Peterson, M.J. (1997). Political Uses of Recognition. In: Recognition of Governments. Studies in Diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230375895_10
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230375895_10
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