Abstract
In his keynote address to the Annual Conference of the International Association of Conflict Management in 1990, Morton Deutsch, truly one of the founding fathers of conflict studies, highlighted five major themes which have dominated the discipline in the last twenty-five years or so.1 The study of mediation is one of the five themes. Given the widespread use of mediation in virtually every area of human interaction, and its increasing importance in international relations, it is not surprising that mediation should figure so prominently in our research. What might, perhaps, seem as somewhat surprising is that after so many years, and a plethora of studies, there is still considerable disagreement amongst scholars, and a state of confusion amongst practitioners, as to what constitutes an effective mediation and how to evaluate it. Hopefully what follows will go some way toward rectifying this situation.
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Notes
See M. Deutsch, ‘Sixty Years of Conflict’, International Journal of Conflict Management, 1 (1990) pp. 237–63.
For a discussion of these, see J. Galtung, ‘Institutionalized Conflict Resolution’, Journal of Peace Research, 2 (1965) pp. 348–96.
See also the more recent book by Linda R. Singer, Settling Disputes (Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1990).
On this, see D. Brown, ‘Divorce and Family Mediation: History, Review and Future Directions’, Conciliation Courts Review, 20 (1982) pp. 1–37.
See F.A. Adcock and D.J. Mosley, Diplomacy in Ancient Greece (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975).
Some of these features are expounded upon in Lynn H. Miller, Global Order, 2nd ed. (Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1990).
A.S. Meyer, ‘Functions of the Mediator in Collective Bargaining’, Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 13 (1960) p. 160.
W Simkin, Mediation and the Dynamics of Collective Bargaining (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs, 1971), p. 118.
No wonder Dean Pruitt was moved to comparing the study of mediation today to that of medicine and surgery in the eighteenth century. See D. Pruitt, ‘Trends in the Scientific Study of Negotiation and Mediation’, Negotiation Journal, 2 (1986) pp. 237–44.
C. Stevens, Strategy and Collective Bargaining Negotiations (New York: McGraw Hill, 1963), p. 123.
T.C. Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960), p. 44.
J.B. Stulberg, ‘The Theory and Practice of Mediation: a Reply to Professor Susskind’, Vermont Law Review, 6 (1981) pp. 85–117.
T. Eckhoff, ‘The Mediator and the Judge’, Acta Sociologica, 10 (1966) p. 158.
L.G. Stenelo, Mediation in International Negotiations (Lund, Sweden: Studentlitterateur, 1972), p. 37.
John S. Dryzek and S. Hunter, ‘Environmental Mediation for International Problems’, International Studies Quarterly, 31 (1987) p. 89.
Oran R. Young, The Intermediaries: Third Parties in International Crisis (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 34.
Christopher R. Mitchell, The Structure of International Conflict (London: Macmillan, 1981), p. 287.
R.R. Blake and J.S. Mouton, Solving Costly Organizational Conflicts (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985), p. 15.
G. Bingham, Resolving Environmental Disputes (Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1986), p. 5.
J. Folberg and A. Taylor, Mediation (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1984), p. 7.
Charles W. Moore, The Mediation Process (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987), p. 14.
H.E. Davis and M.A. Dugan, ‘Training the Mediator’, Peace and Change, 8 (1982) p. 85.
The notion of neutrality merits a special treatment. Mediators have their own interests and are decidedly non-neutrals. They may or may not be impartial (this depends on their conduct and perceived qualities of outcome), but their very entry into a dispute changes its structure and setting. For a discussion of the assumptions of neutrality and its relation to mediation, see J. Bercovitch, Social Conflict and Third Parties: Strategies of Conflict Resolution (Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1984)
S. Touval, ‘Biased Intermediaries: Theoretical and Historical Considerations’, Jerusalem Journal of International Relations, 1 (1975) pp. 51–70
W.P. Smith, ‘Effectiveness of the Biased Mediator’, Negotiation Journal, 1 (1985) pp. 363–72; L.M. Laubich, ‘Neutrality v. Fairness: Can the Mediator’s Conflict be Resolved?’ (Cambridge, Mass.: Program on Negotiation Working Paper 87–2, 1987)
and P. Wehr and J.P. Lederach, ‘Mediating Conflict in Central America’, Journal of Peace Research, 28 (1991) pp. 85–98.
See J. Bercovitch, ‘International Mediation: A Study of the Incidence, Strategies and Conditions of Successful Outcomes’, Cooperation and Conflict, 21 (1986) pp. 155–68. For a historical account of the use of mediation in the period 1816–1960
see E. Levine, ‘Mediation in International Politics: A Universe and Some Observations’, Peace Science Society (International) Papers, 18 (1971) pp. 23–43.
This terminology is part of the efforts to develop a taxonomy of conflict management procedures. For an excellent summary, see Blair H. Sheppard, ‘Third Party Conflict Intervention: A Procedural Framework’, Research in Organizational Behaviour, 6 (1984) pp. 141–90.
On these and other motives, see the very useful account by Chris R. Mitchell, ‘The Motives for Mediation’ in C.R. Mitchell and K. Webb (eds), New Approaches to International Mediation (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988) pp. 29–51.
The significance of a mandate is well treated in S. Kaufman and G.T. Duncan, ‘Third Party Intervention: A Theoretical Framework’ in A. Rahim (ed.), Managing Conflict (New York: Praeger, 1989) pp. 273–290.
For a discussion of these see Joseph B. Stulberg, Taking Chargel Managing Conflict, (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1987)
and S. Touval and I.W. Zartman, ‘Introduction: Mediation in Theory’ in S. Touval and I.W. Zartman (eds), International Mediation in Theory and Practice (Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1985), pp. 7–17.
On the range of providers of mediations services, see L. Kriesberg, ‘Formal and Quasi-Mediators in International Disputes: An Exploratory Analysis’, Journal of Peace Research, 28 (1991) pp. 19–27.
The term relations is much broader than the term politics which may be taken to apply to official policy-making bodies only. We are interested here in the full range of interactions, not merely official interactions, hence the title Mediation in International Relations. For a discussion of this issue see H. Saunders, ‘Officials and Citizens in International Relationships’ in V.D. Volkan, J.V. Montville and D.A. Julius (eds), The Psychodynamics of International Relationships, vol. II (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1991) pp. 41–69.
I am using the categories suggested, in a different context, by Kenneth Waltz in his seminal Man, the State and War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959)
The efforts of these individuals have been the subject of a voluminous literature. Much of it is summarized in J. Bercovitch, Social Conflicts and Third Parties, op. cit.; E. Azar, The Management of Protracted Social Conflict (Hampshire: Dartmouth, 1990)
B.J. Hill, ‘Analysis of Conflict Resolution Techniques’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 26 (1982) pp. 109–38
H.C. Kelman, ‘The Problem-Solving Workshop in Confect Resolution’ in R.L. Merritt (ed.), Communication in International Politics (Hobson, Ill.; University of Illinois Press, 1972), pp. 168–204
and A.V.S. de Reuck, ‘A Theory of Confect Resolution by Problem-Solving’, Man, Environment Space and Time, 3 (1983) pp. 27–36.
On the relation between states and conflict, see K.A. Rasler and W.R. Thompson, War and State Making (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989).
Jeffrey Z. Rubin, ‘Introduction’ in Jeffrey Z. Rubin (ed.), Dynamics of Third Party Intervention: Kissinger in the Middle East (New York: Praeger, 1981) pp. 3–43.
See L. Susskind and J. Cruickshank, Breaking the Impasse (New York: Basic Books, 1987) especially ch. 5.
P.H. Gulliver, Disputes and Negotiations (New York: Academic Press, 1979) p. 220.
D. Kolb, ‘Strategy and Tactics of Mediation’, Human Relations, 36 (1983) p. 249.
See J. Bartunek, A. Benton and C. Keys, ‘Third Party Intervention and the Bargaining Behavior of Group Representatives’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 19 (1975) pp. 532–57.
See T. Kochan and T. Jick, ‘The Public Sector Mediation Process: A Theory and Empirical Examination’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 22 (1978) pp. 209–38.
See D. Kolb, The Mediators (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1983).
See J.G. Stein, ‘Structure, Strategies and Tactics of Mediation: Kissinger and Carter in the Middle East’, Negotiation Journal, 1 (1985) pp. 331–47.
See P.J. Carnevale, ‘Strategic Choice in Mediation’, Negotiation Journal, 2 (1986) pp. 41–56
and P.J. Carnerale, ‘Mediating Disputes and Decisions in Organisations’, Research on Negotiation In Organizations, 1 (1986) pp. 251–69.
See K. Kressel, Labor Mediation: An Exploratory Survey (New York: Association of Labor Mediation Agencies, 1972).
See S. Touval and I.W. Zartman, ‘Introduction: Mediation in Theory’ in S. Touval and I.W. Zartman (eds), International Mediation in Theory and Practice op. cit. pp. 7–20 and I.W. Zartman and S. Touval, ‘International Mediation: Conflict Resolution and Power Politics’, Journal of Social Issues, 41 (1985) pp. 27–46.
See J.A. Wall, ‘Mediation: An Analysis, Review and Proposed Research’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 25 (1981) pp. 157–80.
This framework owes much to Druckman’s analysis of negotiation. For a detailed analysis, see D. Druckman (ed.) Negotiations: Social-Psychological Perspectives (London: Sage Publications, 1977)
and J. Bercovitch ‘Problems and Approaches in the Study of Bargaining and Negotiation’, Political Science, 36 (1984) pp. 125–44.
For a comprehensive review of this conception, see J.T. Tedeschi, T.V. Bonoma and B.R. Schlenker, ‘Influence, Decision and Compliance’ in J.T. Tedeschi (ed.) The Social Influence Process (Chicago: Aldine, 1972) pp. 346–418.
See J.R. French and B.H. Raven, ‘The Bases of Social Power’ in D. Cartwright (ed.) Studies in Social Power (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1959) pp. 150–67
and B.H. Raven, ‘Political Applications and the Psychology of Interpersonal Influence and Social Power’, Political Psychology, 11 (1990) pp. 493–520.
The discussion of procedural and outcome fairness owes much to J.W. Thibaut and L. Walker, Procedural Justice; A Psychological Analysis (New York: John Wiley, 1975) and B.H. Sheppard, ‘Third Party Conflict Intervention’ op. cit.
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© 1992 Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited
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Bercovitch, J. (1992). The Structure and Diversity of Mediation in International Relations. In: Bercovitch, J., Rubin, J.Z. (eds) Mediation in International Relations. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230375864_1
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