Abstract
The previous four chapters have argued that because of Communism’s inability to come to terms with nationalism an ever-widening gap between national political cultures and Communist ways was opened up, which manifested itself in a cyclical pattern of action and reaction that centrifugally pulled the regimes ever farther from legitimacy. Although there were some observers, even Party elites, who were conscious of this phenomenon at the time (especially after the events of 1956), it was not until the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 that the antagonistic nature of the contradiction between nationalism and Communism became apparent for all to see.
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Notes
Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (London: Granta Books, 1991), p. 299.
Janusz Bugajski and Maxine Pollack, East Eumpean Fault Lines: Dissent, Opposition and Social Activism (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989), p. 29.
Paul G. Lewis (ed.), Eastern Eumpe: Political Crisis and Legitimation (London: Croom Helm, 1984), p. 167.
For the most eloquent essay on this subject, see Vaclav Havel, ‘The power of the powerless’, in his Open Letters: Selected Writings 1965–1990 (New York: Vintage Books, 1992), pp. 125–214.
T. H. Rigby and Ferenc Feher (eds.), Political Legitimation in Communist States (Oxford: Macmillan, 1982), p. 51.
J. F. Brown, Eastern Europe and Communist Rule (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988), p. 296.
Lewis 1984, p. 89. See also Tamas Aczel (ed.), Ten Years After: A Commemoration of the Tenth Anniversary of the Hungarian Revolution (London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1966), pp. 142–3.
Rudolf Jaworski, ‘History and tradition in contemporary Poland’, East European Quarterly, 19/3 (September 1985), p. 350.
For more, see Adam Bromke, ‘Poland under Gierek: new political style’, Problems of Communism, 21/5 (September–October 1972), pp. 1–19.
Kristian Gemer, The Soviet Union and Central Europe in the Post-War Era: A Study in Precarious Security (Lund: Esselte Studium, 1984), p. 56. General Wojtech Jaruzelski made a similar gesture in 1985 when he put on public display one of Poland’s most famous and highly politicized paintings, the Panorama of Raclawice, that depicts a Polish victory over the Russian army in the late eighteenth century. See Robert Zuzowski, ‘The impact of nationalism on Communism: the case of Poland’, Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, 19/1–2 (1992), p. 15.
East Germany had already recognized that border in the 1950 Zgorzelec Treaty.
See Lewis 1984, pp. 32–3.
See Ibid. p. 223.
Andrzej Walicki, ‘The three traditions of Polish patriotism’, in Stanislaw Gomulka and Antony Polonsky (eds.), Polish Paradoxes (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 30.
The Black Madonna at Jasna G6ra monastery is revered among Poles and is the object of annual pilgrimages by Catholics. It is venerated as the patron saint of the nation and is seen as Poland’s protector in times of danger and consoler in times of need. The icon was even crowned Queen of Poland by King Jan Kazimierz in 1717 as a token of gratitude to the Pauline monks who helped him fight off the Swedes. It is interesting to note that a stamp commemorating the 600th anniversary of the Black Madonna was issued by the state in 1982. For details of the 600th anniversary of the Black Madonna see Radio Free Europe (RFE) Situation Report Poland, 15 (30 August 1982), pp. 18–20.
George Weigel, The Final Revolution: The Resistance Church and the Collapse of Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 115.
Rosa Luxemburg’s Social Democracy Party of Poland and Lithuania, and the Polish Socialist Party, who together formed the Communist Workers’ Party of Poland in December 1918.
For more, see Jan Kubik, ‘Polish May Day celebrations in the 1970s and in 1981’, Polish Review, 34/2 (1989), pp. 99–116.
See Poland’s two May anniversaries’, RFE Situation Report Poland, 8 (14 May 1981), pp. 4–8.
Robert Zuzowski, ‘The impact of nationalism on Communism: the case of Poland’, History of European Ideas, 18/1 (1994), pp. 38–9.
Sikorski died in a plane crash in Gibraltar on July 1943. In 1970 there was talk of returning his remains to Poland, but the Polish authorities refused to bury him in Wawel Castle. In early 1981 the Polish war veterans’ association tried again, but they were blocked (as in 1983) by British insistence (on strong lobbying from the Polonia movement) that conditions in Poland were not yet suitable. See RFE Situation Report Poland, 10 (5 July 1983), p. 25, and RFE Situation Report Poland, 9 (29 May 1981), pp. 9–13.
For more on the GPU see RFE Situation Report Poland, 9 (11 June 1983), pp. 9–10. See also Anna Sabbat-Swidlicka, ‘The rise and fall of the Grunwald Patriotic Union’, RFE Background Report Poland, 213 (13 October 1982).
‘The PRON Congress’, RFE Situation Report Poland, 9 (11 June 1983), pp. 1–8, and ‘From national front to patriotic movement of national rebirth’, RFE Situation Report Poland, 17 (6 October 1982), pp. 23–30.
Thomas W. Simons, Jr., Eastern Europe in the Postwar World (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991), p. 23.
See Otto Ulc, ‘Communist national minority policy: the case of the gypsies in Czechoslovakia’, Soviet Studies, 20/4 (April 1969), pp. 421–43. For accounts of the situation of gypsies in Hungary see ‘Hungary’s gypsies’, RFE Situation Report Hungary, 9 (12 April 1978), pp. 5–7, and ‘Gypsies: Hungary’s largest ethnic minority’, RFE Situation Report Hungary, 40 (3 November 1976), pp. 3–5.
See Bernard J. Fisher, ‘Albanian nationalism in the twentieth century’, in Peter F. Sugar (ed.), Eastern European Nationalism in the Twentieth Century (Washington: American University Press, 1995), p. 45–7.
Ronald D. Asmus, ‘The GDR and Martin Luther’, Survey, 28/3 (Autumn 1984), p. 127.
See Ibid. pp. 124–56.
George Klein and Milan J. Reban (eds.), The Politics of Ethnicity in Eastern Europe (Boulder, Colo.: East European Monographs, 1981), p. 93.
For an account of the anniversary, see RFE Situation Report Hungary, 33 (25 August 1970), pp. 10–12.
See RFE Situation Report Hungary, 34 (9 November 1977), p. 3.
The crown is now on display in the National Museum in Budapest.
See e.g. the debate over the ‘History of Transylvania’, in Stefan Pascu, Mircea Mupt & Florin Constantiniu, ‘Romanian historians on Transylvania’, in Gail Stokes (ed.), From Stalinism to Pluralism: A Documentary History of Eastern Europe Since 1945 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 229–31.
See e.g. ‘The divisive issue of Macedonia: Yugoslav attitudes and suspicions’, RFE Background Report Yugoslavia, 99 (6 June 1975).
See RFE Europe Situation Report Bulgaria, 14 (23 October 1981).
George SchOpflin (ed.), The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (London: Muller, Blond & White, 1986), p. 306.
See Stanko Todorov, ‘Name changes in Bulgaria’, in Stokes (ed.) 1991, p. 232–4.
Michael Shafir, ‘Xenophobic communism — the case of Bulgaria and Romania’, The World Today, 45/12 (December 1989), p. 209. For further elaboration of the concept of ‘xenophobic communism’, see Ibid. pp. 208–12. This phenomenon has also been described as ‘chauvino-communism’. See George Schopflin, ‘Nationalism and ethnicity in Europe, east and west’, in Charles A. Kupchan (ed.), Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 37–65 particularly 64–5.
Gary K. Bertsch, ‘Currents in Yugoslavia: the revival of nationalisms’, Problems of Communism, 22/6 (November–December 1973), p. 13. For a more general examination of the role of elite manipulation in ethnic crises, see Stuart J. Kaufman, ‘An “instrumental” theory of inter-ethnic war’, Review of International Studies, 22 (1996), pp. 149–71.
Michael Ignatieff, ‘Ethnic Cleansing and Pan Ethnicity’, paper presented at the Workshop on Ethnicity and International Relations, 23–4 November 1995, Chatham House, London.
George Klein, ‘Workers’ self-management and the politics of ethnic nationalism in Yugoslavia’, Nationalities Papers, 5/1 (Spring 1977), pp. 9–10. See also Ramet’s explanation of why relations are different in a multi-ethnic community, in Sabrina P. Ramet, Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1962–1991 (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1992), p. 19.
Muslims were officially recognized as a nationality in 1968. For a commentary on the repercussions of this, see George Schopflin, ‘Nationality in the fabric of Yugoslav politics’, Survey, 25/3 (Summer 1980), pp. 8–9.
Dennison I. Rusinow, ‘Unfinished business: the Yugoslav “national question”’, American Universities Field Staff Reports, 35 (1981), p. 7.
See Mark Baskin, ‘Crisis in Kosovo’, Problems of Communism, 32/2 (March—April 1983), pp. 61–74; and Elez Biberaj, ‘The conflict in Kosovo’, Survey, 28(3) (Autumn 1984), pp. 39–57.
See Paul Shoup, ‘The national question in Yugoslavia’, Problems of Communism, 21/1 (January–February 1972), p. 21.
‘The leaders of the developed regions sought to enhance their power over the formulation of central policies in order to restrict the autonomy of the central bodies and thereby limit, if not reduce, the transfer of resources out of their regions. The leaders of the underdeveloped regions also sought to enhance their role in central decision making. But they did so in order to preserve, if not enlarge, those transfers.’ Steven L. Burg, Conflict and Cohesion in Socialist Yugoslavia: Political Decision Making Since 1966 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 62. See also pp. 54–6 for an explanation of why the southern regions were becoming increasingly dependent on banks for investment capital.
In March 1967 a ‘Declaration on the Name and Use of the Croatian Language’ proclaimed the full separation of the Croatian language from Serbian. This broke the 1954 Novi Sad agreement that had created a common Serbo-Croat language. Interestingly, many signatories of the 1967 agreement were also signatories to the 1954 agreement.
‘The Croatian spring, 1971: socialism in one republic?’, Nationalities Papers, 10/2 (Fall 1982), pp. 221–31. See also Burg 1983, pp. 138 and 149; Ramet 1992, pp. 126–7; and George Schopflin, ‘The ideology of Croatian nationalism’, Survey, 19/1 (Winter 1973), pp. 123–46.
For more on the role of the Church see Ramet 1992, p. 111, and Pedro Ramet, ‘Religion and nationalism in Yugoslavia’, in Pedro Ramet (ed.), Religion and Nationalism in Soviet and East European Politics (Durham: Duke Press Policy Studies, 1984), pp. 163–5.
Under the 1971 amendment the Presidency was to be composed of the presidents of the republican and provincial assemblies, two members elected by each of the republican assemblies and one member elected by each of the provincial assemblies (23 members in all). Under the 1974 constitution the Presidency was reduced to nine members — one representative from each republic, the provinces and the party.
Sylva Sinanian, Istvan Deak and Peter C. Ludz. (eds.), Eastern Europe in the 1970s (New York: Praeger, 1972).
Current Digest of the Soviet Press (CDSP), 24/51 (22 December 1972), p. 6.
Refer to statistics of Rasma Karklins in Ethnic Relations in the USSR (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1986). See also Robert J. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 158–70.
75. CDSP (22 December 1972), p. 8.
S. Enders Wimbush, ‘The Soviet muslim borderlands’, in Robert Conquest (ed.), The Last Empire: Nationality and the Soviet Future (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1986), p. 220.
CDSP (22 December 1972), p. 9.
For a sociological explanation of this phenomenon, see William Bloom, Personal Identity, National Identity and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 143.
Alexandre A. Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush, Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), p. 102.
Seweryn Bialer, Stalin’s Successors: Leadership, Stability, and Change in the Soviet Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), p. 208.
R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 346.
As cited in Ernst Kux, ‘Contradictions in Soviet socialism’, Problems of Communism, 33/6 (November–December 1984), p. 1.
Gregory Gleason, Federalism and Nationalism: The Struggle for Republican Rights in the USSR (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), p. 16.
‘Andropov keynotes USSR anniversary’, CDSP 34/51, p. 4 as reported in Pravda and Izvestia, 22 December.
See ‘Supreme Soviet Presidium takes action’ as reported in Pravda (13 January 1982), in CDSP 35/2, p. 13.
Andropov keynote, p. 5.
As reported in Pravda and Izvestia, 15 June 1983, in ‘Chernenko keynotes CC Session’, CDSP 35/24, p. 9.
The Programme of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, 1986), p. 9.
Alexander J. Motyl, Sovietology, Rationality, Nationality: Coming to Grips with Nationalism in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), p. 98.
As cited in Charles F. Furtado and Andrea Chandler (eds.), Perestroika in the Soviet Republics: Documents on the National Question (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992), p. 22.
In CDSP 39/44 (2 December 1987), p. 9.
See the remark of Kestutis Girnius in Alastair McAuley (ed.), Soviet Federalism, Nationalism and Economic Decentralisation (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1991), p. 171.
Gail W. Lapidus and Victor Zaslavsky, with Philip Goldman, From Union to Commonwealth: Nationalism and Separatism in the Soviet Republics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 47.
The Programme of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 27th Congress of the CPSU (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, 1986), p. 66.
For more see Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone, ‘“Socialist internationalism” and eastern Europe’, Survey, 22/1 (Winter 1976).
As cited in Karen Dawisha, Eastern Europe, Gorbachev and Reform: The Great Challenge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 214.
CDSP 40/11 (1988), p. 11.
Anthony D. Smith, Nationalism in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1979), p. 147.
George W. Simmonds (ed.), Nationalism in the USSR and Eastern Europe in the Era of Brezhnev and Kosygin (Detroit: Detroit University Press, 1977), p. 51.
Robert L. Hutchings, ‘“Leadership drift” in the Communist systems of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe’, Studies in Comparative Communism, 22/1 (Spring 1989), p. 7.
Keith L. Lepak, ‘Prelude to crisis: leadership drift in Poland in the 1970s’, Studies in Comparative Communism, 22/1 (Spring 1989), p. 12.
Zbigniew K. Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 511.
See e.g. J. F. Brown, Surge to Freedom: The End of Communist Rule in Eastern Europe (London: Adamantine Press, 1991); Misha Glenny, The Rebirth of History: Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy (London: Penguin, 1993); and Gale Stokes, The Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).
See Alfred Erich Senn, ‘Toward Lithuanian independence: Algirdas Brazuaskas and the CPL’, Problems of Communism, 39/2 (March-April 1990), pp. 21–8; Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence (London & New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); Jan Arveds Trapans (ed.), Toward Independence: The Baltic Popular Movements (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1991); and Romuald Misiunas and Rein Taagepera, The Baltic States: Years of Dependence 1940–1990 (London: Hurst & Company, 1993), ch. 7.
Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 156. See also Ronald Wixman, ‘Ethnic nationalism in the Caucusus’, Nationalities Papers, 10/2 (Fall 1982), pp. 137–55.
Alexander J. Motyl (ed.), The Post-Soviet Nations: Perspectives on the Demise of the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), p. 157.
See Nicolai N. Petro, ‘Rediscovering Russia’, Orbis, 34/1 (Winter 1990), p. 37.
See Julia Wishnevsky, ‘The emergence of “Pamyat” and “Otechestvo”’, Radio Liberty Research Bulletin, 342/87 (26 August 1987).
See ‘Declaration on the State Sovereignty of the RSFSR adopted by the First Congress of the RSFSR People’s Deputies 12 June 1990’, in Furtado and Chandler (eds.), pp. 325–6.
See Lieven 1993, ch. 8.
Mikhail Gorbachev, ‘On practical work to implement the decisions of the 19th All-Union Party Conference’ (29 July 1988), in Furtado and Chandler (eds.), p. 22.
Furtado and Chandler (eds.) 1992, pp. 20–35.
On 2 April 1990 a law was passed recognizing the rights of minority ethnic groups within republics to protect their own cultures.
Steven L. Burg, ‘The European republics of the Soviet Union’, Current History, 89(549) (October 1990), p. 321.
For details see Motyl (ed.) 1992, pp. 121–2.
For details see Ibid. pp. 124–5.
Eduard Shevardnadze, ‘Socialism “cannot rely on bloodshed”’, Manchester Guardian Weekly (8 July 1990), p. 10 (originally published in Pravda).
See James Hughes, ‘Moscow’s bilateral treaties add to confusion’, Transition (20 September 1996), pp. 39–43.
Eric Cahm and Vladimir Claude Filera (eds.), Socialism and Nationalism (Nottingham: Spokesman Books, 1978–80), p. 125.
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© 1999 Walter A. Kemp
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Kemp, W.A. (1999). The Contradiction Apparent. In: Nationalism and Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230375253_6
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