Abstract
Ideas of human nature and human need are currently out of favour. According to contemporary strands within cultural theory, only the most untutored undergraduate who had not yet sampled the delights of post-structuralism, deconstruction and postmodernism could fall victim to such ideas. The human subject, it seems, is being constantly interrupted and rewritten through the wider processes of culture and society, implying that our understandings of ‘human nature’ are purely social constructs of the historical time frames we happen to be living in. This in turn marks any notion of human need and nature both politically conservative and intellectually regressive.1 Here, primarily through attention to the work of Raymond Williams, I want to argue that notions of human need and nature could have profound implications for our thinking about the means by which global societies communicate with themselves. My argumentative strategy will press the case against the received wisdom of the present and suggest that globalization processes have given fresh impetus to such questions. This will seem an odd claim in an age where the media of mass communication have chopped up space and scrambled temporal dimensions in such a way as to promote a culture of the ‘perpetual present’. Surely, it might be argued, any attempt to retain such definitions has been outstripped by the global flow of information that penetrates the permeable borders of the nation-state. To talk of communications, nature and needs in the same breath amounts to little more than an exercise in cultural nostalgia. Yet I think that such prescriptions are misleading and would disconnect cultural concerns from wider questions of democracy, identity and responsibility.
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Notes
It is hard to think of any significant thinker associated with postmodernism, post-structuralism or deconstruction that does not indeed dismiss notions of human nature.
J. Baudrillard, Selected Writings (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1988.)
R. Williams, The Long Revolution (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965.)
Ibid., p. 118.
R. Williams, Communications (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 134.
J. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, trans. Thomas MaCarthy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989.)
I have discussed the similarities and differences between Habermas and Williams in (forthcoming) J. McGuigan (eds), Theory and Method in Cultural Studies (London: Sage, 1996.)
R. Williams, The Politics of Modernism; Against the New Conformists (London: Verso, 1989.)
N. Stevenson, Understanding Media Cultures: Social Theory and Mass Communication (London: Sage, 1995.)
R. Williams, Towards 2000 (London: Penguin, 1985), p. 260.
Ibid., p. 263.
This is of course not to offer the absurd argument that rationality is itself wholly determined by instrumental and masculine constructs.
K. Soper, What is Nature?, Culture, Politics and the Non-Human (Blackwell: Oxford, 1995.)
N. Geras, Marx on Human Nature: Refutation of a Legend (London: Verso, 1983.)
See C. Taylor, ‘Atomism’, Philosophy and the Human Sciences, Philosophical Papers 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)
A. Heller, Can Modernity Survive? (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990.)
N. Stevenson, Culture, Ideology and Socialism (Avebury: Aldershot, 1995.)
I outline some of the tensions involved in Williams’s discussions of these issues in Culture, Ideology and Socialism.
R. Williams, ‘Problems of Materialism’, Problems in Materialism and Culture (London: Verso, 1980), p. 115.
Ibid., p. 113.
R. Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 37.
J. Bowlby, The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds (London: Routledge, 1979.)
Interestingly, Bowlby argues that these arguments also apply to animals. On the relations between humans and animals, see T. Benton, Natural Relations: Ecology, Animal Rights and Social Justice (London: Verso, 1993.)
R. Williams, Keywords (London: Penguin, 1976.)
R. Williams, ‘The Writer: Commitment and Alignment’, Resources of Hope (London: Verso, 1989.)
R. Williams, The English Novel from Dickens to Lawerence (London: Hogarth Press, 1985.)
L. Doyal and D. Gough, A Theory of Human Needs (London: Macmillan, 1991.)
D. Wrong, The Problem of Order: What Unites and Divides Society (Harvard University Press, 1994.)
F. A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (London: Routledge and Kegan, 1976.)
L. Althusser, For Marx (London: Verso, 1977)
J. Baudrillard, Transparency of Evil: Essays in Extreme Phenomena (London: Verso, 1993.)
B. Turner, ‘Outline of the Theory of Human Rights’, B. Turner (ed.) Citizenship and Social Theory (London: Sage, 1993.)
See A. Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991)
J. Baudrillard, Transparency of Evil: Essays in Extreme Phenomena (London: Verso, 1993.)
U. Beck, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity (London: Sage, 1992.)
Ibid., p. 36.
M. Rustin, ‘Incomplete Modernity: Ulrich Beck’s Risk Society’, Radical Philosophy (No. 67, 1994)
K. Soper, What is Nature?; Culture, Politics and the Non-Human (Blackwell: Oxford, 1995.)
T. Nairn, The Enchanted Glass: Britain and the Monarchy (London: Radius, 1988)
R. Samuel, ‘Introduction: Exciting to be English’, in Patriotism – the Making and the Unmaking of British National Identity, Vol. 1: History and Politics (London: Routledge, 1989.)
B. Parekh, ‘British citizenship and cultural difference’, in G. Andrews (ed.), Citizenship (London: Lawerence and Wishart, 1991.)
J. Baudrillard, ‘Mass Media Culture’, in Revenge of the Crystal: Selected Writings on the Modern Object and its Destiny, 1968–1983 (London: Pluto Press, 1990)
H. M. Enzensberger, ‘Constituents of a theory of the media’, in Raids and Reconstructions (London: Pluto Press, 1976.)
M. Poster, The Second Media Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995.)
R. Williams, The Politics of Modernism; Against the New Conformists (London: Verso, 1989), p. 132.
D. Kellner, Media Culture (London: Routledge, 1995.)
H. Gadamer, Truth and Method (New York: Seabury Press, 1975), pp. 477–8.
P. Bourdieu, Distinction (London: Routledge, 1984.)
S. Sontag, Against Interpretation (London: Vintage, 1994.)
D. Potter, ‘The present tense, interview with Melvyn Bragg’, New Left Review (1994), p. 205.
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Stevenson, N. (1997). Rethinking Human Nature and Human Needs: Raymond Williams and Mass Communications. In: Wallace, J., Jones, R., Nield, S. (eds) Raymond Williams Now. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230373464_6
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