Abstract
The assumption that Euro-paralysis in the foreign and security field stems solely from international developments may well be wrong.1 In fact, this chapter will try to show that the roots of the problem may also be found in domestic developments. The argument is not merely about the obvious linkage between domestic and international issues.2 It is also about judgment criteria and some essential cause-effect equations. If politicians ignore solidarity calls within their own domestic borders, can one expect them to act less selfishly across these borders? If people do not trust their own national governments, why should they endorse a European government with its still-nascent forms of representation? If European nation states fail to pass the efficiency test can the Union, composed of 15 such inefficient states, do any better?3 Common policies within the Union are not made in a social, political, and cultural vacuum. Those policies are part of a complex democratic process sweeping across the entire continent. If Europe’s democracy is in trouble, then diplomatic, military, and any other policies within the Union can hardly work. In short, democratic paralysis implies paralysis in the foreign and security field. This chapter will try to assess the credibility of this claim.
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Notes
See David Singer, “The Level-of-Analysis Problem in International Relations”, in The International System: Theoretical Essays, Klaus Knorr and Sidney Verba, eds. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), pp. 77–92.
See Jack Hayward, “Governing the New Europe”, in Governing the New Europe, Jack Hayward and Edward C. Page, eds. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), p. 405.
See also Wolfram F. Hanriender, “Dissolving International Politics: Reflections on the Nation state”, The American Political Science Review, Vol. 72, No. 4 (December 1978), pp. 1276–87.
See, e.g., Andrea di Robilant, “Italy Takes It On the Chin for Poor Presidential Leadership: Europe’s Stability May Be a Spur for Much-Needed Constitutional Reform at Home”, The European, February 22–28, 1996, p. 8.
Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper, 1947), second edition, p. 269.
Hans-Georg Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe (London: Macmillan 1994), p. 37,
also Jean-Marie Guéhenno, La fin de la démocratic (Flammarion: Paris, 1993),
as well as Herman van Gunsteren and Rudy Andeweg, Het Grote Ongenoegen: Over de Kloof Tussen Burgers en politiek (Haarlem: Aramith Uitgevers, 1994).
The sources are Hans-Joachim Veen, Norbert Lepszy and Peter Mnich, The Republikaner Party in Germany: Right-Wing Menance or Protest Catchall? (Westport: Praeger, 1993), p. 45 (Washington Papers No. 162), and the Guardian, September 20, 1993.
See Flora Lewis, “Politics, Like It or Not, Requires Human Involvement”, International Herald Tribune, November 5–6, 1994.
For a comprehensive analysis of the problem see Yves Mény, La Corruption de la République (Paris: Fayard, 1992).
See Galen A. Irwin, “The Dutch Parliamentary Election of 1994”, Electoral Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 72–6.
For a detailed analysis of electoral change see Mark N. Franklin, Thomas T. Mackie, Henry Valen et al., eds, Electoral Change. Responses to Evolving Social and Attitudinal Structures in Western Countries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), especially pp. 406–27.
Peter Mair, Party Democracies and Their Difficulties (Leiden: University of Leiden, 1994), p. 10.
Also see Peter Mair, “Myths of Electoral Change and the Survival of Traditional Parties: the 1992 Stein Rokkan Lecture”, European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 24, No. 2 (1993), pp. 121–33.
See Dieter Fuchs and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, “Citizens and the State: A Relationship Transformed”, in Citizens and the State, Dieter Fuchs and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 427.
See also Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, “Changing Models of Party Organization and Party Democracy: The Emergence of the Cartel Party”, Party Politics, No. 1 (1995), pp. 5–28.
Full details of party finances and membership in twelve countries are reported in Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds. Party Organizations: A Data Handbook on Party Organizations in Western Democracies, 1960–90 (London: Sage, 1992).
See Alan Ware, “The Party Systems of the Established Liberal Democracies in the 1990s: Is This a Decade of Transformation?”, Government and Opposition, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1995), p. 323.
See Jack Hayward, “Organized Interests and Public Policies”, in Governing the New Europe, Jack Hayward and Edward C. Page, eds. (Oxford: Oxford Polity Press, 1995), p. 247.
See also Ignacio Ramonet, “Médias en danger”, Le Monde Diplomatique, February 1996, p. 1.
For a comprehensive analysis of this problem see Michael J. O’Neill, The Roar of the Crowd: How Television and People Power Are Changing the World (New York: Times Books, 1992).
David Webster, “New Communications Technology and the International Political Process”, in The Media and Foreign Policy, Simon Serfaty, ed. (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1991), p. 223.
See Richard Cohen, “Waiting for New Meaning in a Post-Cold War World”, International Herald Tribune, October 27, 1993.
Giovanni Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering (London: Macmillan, 1994), pp. 149–50.
See Alain Minc, L’ivresse démocratique (Paris: Gallimard, 1995), p. 97.
Here I draw heavily on Giovanni Sartori’s, “Video-power”, Government and Opposition, Vol. 24, No. 1 (1989), pp. 48–9.
See Tony Benn, “Shallow Media Coverage of Politics”, The Times, May 14, 1994.
See David R. Gergen, “Diplomacy in a Television Age: The Dangers of Teledemocracy”, in The Media and Foreign Policy, Simon Serfaty, ed. (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1991), pp. 48–9.
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See Francis Fukuyama, “The Primacy of Culture”, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 6, No. 1 (January 1995), pp. 7–14.
See also Seymour Martin Lipset, “The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 59 (February 1994), pp. 3–5.
See Geoff Mulgan, “Party-Free Politics”, New Statesman and Society, April 15, 1994, p. 16.
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See also Robert D. Putnam, Robert Leonardi and Raffaella Y. Nanetti, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 88.
This was well argued in Arend Lijphard, Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), especially p. 229.
See especially Ronald Inglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 484.
See especially Jan W. Van Deth and Elinor Scarbrough, “Introduction: The Impact of Values”, in The Impact of Values, Jan W. Van Deth and Elinor Scarbrough, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 4–5.
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S. Crook, J. Pakulski and M. Waters, Postmodernisation: Change in Advanced Society (London: Sage, 1992).
See Zbigniew Brzezinski, Out of Control. Global Turmoil on the Eve of the Twenty-First Century, (New York: Robert Steward, 1993), p. 65.
Ignacio Ramonet, “Agonie de la morale”, Le Monde Diplomatique, Vol. 41, No. 487 (October 1994), p. 1.
See Charles S. Maier, “Democracy and Its Discontents”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 4 (July/August 1994), pp. 48ff.
See especially Loek Halman, “Is There a Moral Decline? A Cross-National Inquiry into Morality in Contemporary Society”, International Social Science Journal, No. 145 (September 1995), pp. 419–39.
See Ronald Inglehart, “Changing Values, Economic Development and Political Change”, International Social Science Journal, No. 145 (September 1995), pp. 394–5.
Guido Lenzi, “Reforming the International System: Between Leadership and Power-Sharing”, Internationale Spectator, Vol. 30, No. 2 (April–June 1995), pp. 49–69.
by David Held in “Democracy: From City-States to a Cosmopolitan Order?”, in Prospects for Democracy, David Held, ed. (Oxford: Polity Press, 1993), pp. 13–52.
See Ian Davidson, “Rethink in the West”, Financial Times, April 13, 1994.
See Robert B. Reich, The Work of Nations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), p. 304.
See also Geraint Parry, ed., Politics in an Interdependent World: Essays Presented to Ghit a Ionescu (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1994), p. 208.
William Brock quoted in CSIS News, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Spring 1994), p. 8.
See Ronnie D. Lipschutz, “Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society”, Millennium, Vol. 21, No. 3 (1992), pp. 389–420,
or Peter J. Spiro, “New Global Communities: Nongovernmental Organizations in International Decision-Making Institutions”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 45–55.
See also a classical study by Samuel P. Huntington, “Transnational Organizations in World Politics”, World Politics, Vol. 25, No. 3 (April 1973), pp. 333–68.
Susan Strange, “The Limits of Politics”, Government and Opposition, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1995), p. 298.
Non-governmental pressures on the functioning of the European Union are analyzed by, e.g., Justin Greenwood and Karsten Ronit, “Interest Groups in the European Community: Newly Emerging Dynamics and Forms”, West European Politics, Vol. 17, No. 1 (January 1994), pp. 31–52,
or Andrew M. McLaughlin and Justin Greenwood, “The Management of Interest Representation in the European Union”, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 143–56.
See R.A.W. Rhodes, “The Hollowing Out of the State”, Political Quarterly, Vol. 65, No. 2 (1994), pp. 138–9.
See also Patrick Dunleavy, “The Globalization of Public Services Production: Can Government be ‘Best in the World’?”, Public Policy and Administration, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Summer 1994), pp. 36–64.
Wolfgang C. Müller and Vincent Wright, “Reshaping the State in Western Europe: the Limits to Retreat”, West European Politics, special issue on “The State in Western Europe: Retreat or Redefinition”, Vol. 17, No. 3 (July 1994), pp. 7–8.
A powerful historical argument for the latter hypothesis is provided by Alan Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation State (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 18ff.
See Ernst B. Haas, “Turbulent Fields and the Theory of Regional Integration”, International Organization, Vol. 30, No. 2 (1976), pp. 173–212.
See J.H.H. Weiler with Ulrich R. Haltern and Franz C. Mayer, “European Democracy and Its Critique”, West European Politics, special issue on “The Crisis of Representation in Europe”, Vol. 18, No. 3 (July 1995), pp. 9–10.
Giovanni Sartori, “Video-Power,” Government and Opposition, Vol. 24, No. 1 (1989), pp. 39–40.
See also Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
See Max Gallo, “Oublier les nations, un mirage dangereux,” Le Monde Diplomatique, No. 22, May 1994.
See Trevor Smith, “Post-Modern Politics and the Case for Constitutional Renewal”, Political Quarterly, Vol. 65, No. 2 (1994), p. 128.
See Dominique Wolton, La dernière utopie: naissance de l’Europe démocratique (Paris: Flammarion, 1993), pp. 76–7.
This dilemma is brilliantly analyzed in Robert A. Dahl, “A Democratic Dilemma: System Effectiveness versus Citizen Participation”, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 109, No. 1 (1994), pp. 23–34.
See Robert A. Dahl, “Democracy and the Chinese Boxes”, in Frontiers of Democratic Theory H.S. Kariel, ed, (New York: Random House, 1970), pp. 372–3.
See John Hoffman, Beyond the State (Oxford: Oxford Polity Press, 1995), p. 213.
See, e.g., Elizabeth Meehan, Citizenship and the European Community (London: Sage, 1993).
See Rudy Andeweg, “The Reshaping of National Party Systems”, West European Politics, special issue on the Crisis of Representation in Europe, Vol. 18, No. 3 (July 1995), p. 58.
See, e.g., M. Westlake, “The European Parliament, the National Parliaments and the 1996 Intergovernmental Conference”, Political Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. 1 (1994), p. 7.
Also Jean-Claude Piris, “After Maastricht, Are the Community Institutions More Efficacious, More Democratic and More Transparent”, European Law Review, Vol. 19, No. 5 (October 1994), pp. 449–87.
See David Held, “Democracy: From City-States to a Cosmopolitan Order?”, in Prospects for Democracy, David Held, ed. (Oxford: Oxford Polity Press, 1993) pp. 37–44.
See Jason Alexander, “Power Politics”, The Economist, A Survey of the World Economy, 7 October 1995, p. 44.
This is well argued in Robert B. Reich, The Work of Nations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), pp. 305–7.
This is well argued in Michael Walzer, “The Concept of Civil Society” (or the introduction) in Toward a Global Civil Society, Michael Walzer, ed, (Providence and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1995), pp. 1–4 and 7–28.
See Wolfram F. Hanrieder, “Dissolving International Politics”, in Perspectives on World Politics, Michael Smith, Richard Little and Michael Shackleton, eds. (London: Croom Helm, 1981), pp. 137–8.
Bruce Russett, Controlling the Sword. The Democratic Governance of National Security (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), p. 1.
See, e.g., T. Clifton Morgan and Sally Howard Campbell, “Domestic Structure, Decisional Constraints, and War: So Why Can’t Democracies Fight?”, in Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 35, No. 2 (1991), special issue — Democracy and Foreign Policy: Community and Constraint, Bruce J. Bueno de Mesquita, Robert W. Jackman and Randolph M. Siverson, eds., pp. 187–212,
or Antonio Cassese, ed., Parliamentary Control Over Foreign Policy: Legal Essays (Alphen aan den Rijn: Sijthoff and Noordhoff, 1980).
Walter Lippmann, The Public Philosophy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1955), p. 20.
For a historical overview of the problem see Barbara Tuchman, The March of Folly: From Troy to Vietnam (Glasgow: Abacus, 1985).
Modern cases are discussed, e.g., in David P. Forsythe, “Democracy, War and Covert Action”, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 29, No. 4 (1992), pp. 385–95.
See Ole Holsti, “Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: Challenges to the Almond-Lippmann Consensus”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 4 (1992), pp. 439–66.
As far as specific European case studies are concerned see, e.g., Philip P. Everts, ed., Controversies at Home. Domestic Factors in the Foreign Policy of The Netherlands (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1985), p. 363,
or Kjell Goldman, Sten Berglund and Gunnar Sjöstedt, eds., Democracy and Foreign Policy: The Case of Sweden (Aldershot: Gower, 1986), p. 206.
See Robert C. Johansen, “Military Policies and the State System as Impediments to Democracy”, in Prospects for Democracy, David Held, ed. (Oxford: Oxford Polity Press, 1993), p. 218.
Robert A. Dahl, Controlling Nuclear Weapons: Democracy versus Guardianship (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1985), p. 51.
Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited, Part One: The Contemporary Debate (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House Publishers, 1987), p. 115.
Valentine Herman, Parliaments of the World: A Reference Compendium (London: Macmillan, 1976), p. 879.
For a more recent illustration of this argument see Stelios Stavridis, “The “Second” Democratic Deficit in the EC: The Process of European Political Cooperation,” in International Relations and Pan-Europe, Frank R. Pfetsch, ed. (Muster and Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 1993), p. 174.
See Michael Gallagher, “Electoral Systems and Voting Behaviour,” in Developments in West European Politics, Martin Rhodes, Paul Heywood and Vincent Wright, eds. (London: Macmillan, 1997), p. 128.
The point is well argued in Stelios Stavridis, “The Democratic Control of the CFSP,” in Common Foreign and Security Policy. The Record and Reforms, Martin Holland, ed., (London and Washington: Pinter, 1997), pp. 137–40.
See also Joseph H.H. Weiler, The European Parliament and Its Foreign Affairs Committees (New York: Oceana Publ, 1982), p. 58.
See Christopher Hill, “European Foreign Policy: Power Bloc, Civilian Model or Flop?” in The Evolution of an International Actor: Western Europe’s New Assertiveness, Reinhardt Rummel, ed. (Boulder: Westview, 1990), pp. 46–7.
See Philip Everts, Laat dat maar aan ons over. Democratie, buitenlands beleid en vrede (Leiden: DSWO Press 1996), pp. 111–27.
See Philippe C. Schmitter, “An Alternative Strategy for the Future of European Integration: Democratization,” Paper presented at an EUI Robert Schuman Centre seminar in Florence, February 25, 1997, p. 12.
See Commission of the European Communities, Increased Transparency in the Work of the Commission, SEC(92) 2274, Brussels, 1992,
or Commission of the European Communities, Openness in the Community, COM (93) 258, Brussels, 1993.
Juliet Lodge, “Transparency and Democratic Legitimacy”, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3 (September 1994), p. 355.
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© 1998 Jan Zielonka
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Zielonka, J. (1998). The crisis of modern democracy. In: Explaining Euro-Paralysis. St Antony’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230372849_5
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