Abstract
Economic exploitation was at the heart of India’s colonial experience. To counter colonial rule, the Indian nationalists therefore evolved a doctrine of economic nationalism known as swadeshi, which translated roughly means ‘home grown’. Eventially swadeshi was transformed into post-colonial policies of autarky in the management of the economy, science and technology and the defence industries.
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Endnotes
For the role of the nationalist historians in illuminating this past in the context of the nationalist movement see Romila Thapar, A History ofIndia, Vo1.1 Penguin, Middlesex, UK, 1969, p. 17.
See K.R. Mulkani’s description of the views of the founder of the RSS, The RSS Story, Impex India, New Delhi, 1980, pp. 69–70. Mulkani’s view is that Hinduism is a‘scientific’ religion in so far as it is a utilitarian one that allows the participant to choose his or her best path to spiritual peace without the intercession of dogma.
‘Dr Kalam seeks return of Tippu’s rockets’, The Statesman, 2 December, 1991.
For an expression of these views see Admiral R. H. Tahiliani, ‘Maritime strategy for the nineties’, Indian Defence Review, July 1989, p. 21.
Quoted in D ilip B obb and A marnath K. M enon, ‘Chariot of F ire’, I ndia T oday, 15 June, 1979.
Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: the political economy of the Indian state, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1987, p. 26, Table 4.
Rudolphs, In Pursuit of I.akshmi, p. 26.
Calculated from Table 1.6, p. 54, World Bank, 1991 Country Economic Memorandum on India, May 1990, Vol. 1.
James Clad, ‘Patience sorely tested’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 24 January, 1991, p. 42.
India Country Survey in The Economist, 4 May 1991, p. 11.
World Bank, 1991 Country Economic Memorandum, Table 1.6, p. 54.
‘Freeing India’s Economy’, The Economist, 23 May 1992.
Government of India, Ministry of Finance (Economic Division), Economic Survey 1990–91, Government of India Press, New Delhi, 1991, Table 7.3, p. 102.
See M.S. Ardeshir (Ed.), Eighth Plan Perspectives, Lancer, New Delhi, 1991, p. 5.
‘India Country Survey’, The Economist, 4 May 1991, Table i, p. 9.
S.V.S. Raghavan, ‘The Permit Raj Must Go’, India Today, 15 June 1990, p. 101.
‘The elephant awakes’, The Economist, 23 May 1992, p. 21.
Non-attributable source.
Surendra J. Patel, ‘Main Elements in Shaping Future Technology Policies for India’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXIV, No. 9, March 1989, p. 463.
Ashok V. Desai, ‘Technology Acquisition and Application: Interpreting the Indian Experience’, in R.E.B. Lucas and G.F. Papanek, The Indian Economy: Recent Developments and Future Prospects, Boulder, Colorado, 1988, p. 167.
R.M. Sundium, ‘Growth and Income Distribution in India: Policy and Performance Since Independence’, as cited in Debesh Bhattachaiya, ‘Growth and Distribution in India During the Last Four Decades’, (paper provided for the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade of the Australian Senate’s inquiry into Australia-India relations, 11 July 1989, Commonwealth Government Printer, Canberra, 1989, p. 7).
See B. D. Kapur, Building a Defence Technology Base, Lancer International, New Delhi, 1990, pp. 26–27.
Kapur, Building a Defence Technology Base, p. 74.
Ron Matthews, Defence Production in India, ABC Publishing House, New Delhi, 1989, p. 49.
Matthews, Defence Production in India, p. 49.
Government of India, Ministry of Finance (Economic Division), Economic Survey 1988–89, Government of India Press, New Delhi, 1990, Table 1.1. p.l.
Kapur’, Building a Defence Technology Base, pp. 74–6.
Matthews, Defence Production in India, p. 38.
Matthews, Defence Production in India, p. 53.
Amit Gupta, ‘India’s Mixed Performance’, Defense and Diplomacy, Vol. 7, No. 5, May 1989, p. 44.
S.R. Valluri, ‘Science Policy and National Goals’ (Unsourced paper in the posession of the author). Valluri is the former director of the National Aeronautical Laboratory, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.
See Pacific Defence Reporter, Vol. XVI, No. 11, May, 1990, p. 31, for the statement of Dr Abdul Kalam, Director, Defence Research and Development Laboratory, on the space plane. The rail gun is reportedly being researched at the Armament Research Development Establishment at Pune. See Asia-Pacific Defence Reporter, Vol. XVIII/IGX, No. 12/1, June-July 1992, p. 25.
Kapur, Building a Defence Technology Base, pp. 26–27.
Interview, senior foreign official involved in technology transfer in the defence industries, New Delhi, 1989.
Valluri, ‘Science Policy and National Goals’.
Surendra J. Patel, ‘Main Elements in Shaping Future Technology Policies for India’, p. 463.
S.R. Valluri, ‘Building on know-why-technology drives essential’ (nunsourced paper in the possession of the author).
For the higher estimate see Stephen Hill and Shantha Liyanage, ‘The Status of Indian Science and Technology Capabilities’ (paper prepared for the Australian S&T mission to India, July 1990), p. 1. The lower estimate is given in a paper by the US National Science Foundation, Indian Scientific Strengths: Selected Opportunities for Indo-US Cooperation, Washington DC, 1987, p. 196.
US National Science Foundation, Indian Scientific Strengths, p. 200.
Hill and Liyanage, ‘The Status of Indian Science’, p. iii.
Govindarajulu, ‘lndia’s S&T Capability…’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXV, Nos. 7/8, 1990, p. M-37, Table 7.
Patel, ‘Main Elements’, p. 463.
Govmdarajulu, ‘India’s S&T Capability…’, p. M-37.
Council tor Science and Industrial Research, Status Report on Science and Technology in India: 1988, Government of India, Publications and Information Directorate, New Delhi, 1988, pp.1–25.
Hill and Liyanage, ‘The Status of Indian Science’, p. v.
US National Science Foundation, Indian Scientific Strengths, passim. The section on materials sciences was compiled by Professor P. Somasundaran of Colombia University; ceramics was covered by Professor Rishi Raj of Cornell; and microelectronics by Kash L. Mittal of IBM.
P. Englemann and C. Manthey, ‘15 Years of Bilateral Cooperation in Science and Technology between the FRG and the Republic of India’, Forschungzentrum Julich Gmbh International Bureau, Kiiln, 1990, p. 48.
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Status Report …1988, p. 25.
Quoted in Govindarajulu, I ndia’s S&T Capability…’, p. M -37.
US National Science Foundation, Indian Scientific Strengths, p. viii.
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Status Report on Science and Technology in India: 1990, Government of India, Publications and Information Directorate, New Delhi, 1990, pp. 3–4.
US National Science Foundation, Indian Scientific Strengths, p. viii.
Science Advisory Council to the Prime Minister, Perspectives in Science and Technology, Vol. 1, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1990, p. 39.
Dhirendra Sharma, India’s Lopsided Science’, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 47, No. 4, May 1991.
Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, p. 15.
World Bank, as reported in the Times ofIndia, 27 May 1992.
Interview with Mr Johri, Head, International Collaboration, CSIR, New Dellii, December 1991.
Interview, Johri.
BEL has established a laboratory for newly recruited scientists in which they are free to pursue their projects unencumbered by bureaucracy. The laboratory has developed some remarkable innovations. Interviews and site inspection by the author, BEL, Bangalore, December, 1991.
See Patel, ‘Main Elements’, p. 463 for the higher estimate. The lower estimate was provided to the author by the Centre for PlanningResearch and Action, New Delhi.
Centre for Planning Research and Action.
These estimates were made by Dr A. Aatre, head of the Naval and Demographic Research Laboratory, Cochin, in response to a question at a conference on implications of the ‘new technology’ for the military, Canberra, November 1989.
Sunita Sohrabji, ‘Is the spree over?’, India Today, 15 January 1994, p. 193.
For the higher figure see James Clad, ‘Paradise Abroad’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 26 April 1990, p. 27. The lower figure was provided by Dr N. Srinivasanan, Managing Director, International Data Corporation (India), New Delhi, December, 1991. Dr Srinivasanan is engaged in developing an export strategy for the industry for the World Bank. The figure of 5% is confirmed by Salim Lakha, ‘The BJP and Globalization of the Indian Economy’, unpublished paper from the ‘After Ayodhya’ conference, Curtin University, Perth, July 1993, p. 2. For the 10% figure, see Dr Aatre, as in fn. 62 above. See also Saritha Rai, ‘Software: People at a Premium’, India Today, 15 May 1992, p. 137.
‘Logging on to India’s Potential’, India Today, 30 June, 1991, p. 83.
Rai, ‘Software: People at a Premium’.
‘Logging on to India’s potential’, passim.
James Clad, ‘Status symbol’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 26 April 1990, p. 26.
‘Canadian Indian to Head Defence Unit’, Hindustan Times, 8 May 1989.
Gary Milhollin, ‘India’s missiles: with a little help from our friends’, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol 45, No. 9, November 1989, p. 32.
Susumu Awanohara, ‘In the melting pot’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 26 April 1990, p. 32. See also ‘Large skilled workforce in India’, Times of India, 25 April 1992.
Centre for Science and Industrial Research, Status Report …1990, p. 8 and Table 13, p. 100.
‘Pentagon dumps “critical technologies” plan’, Current News Supplement, US Department of Defence, Thursday, 23 April 1992, p. B 30; and ‘New Science and Technology Role Focuses Research Efforts on Key Areas’, Current News Supplement, US Department of Defence, 1 May 1992, p. B 28.
US Government, Department of Defense, The Department of Defense Critical Technologies Plan for the Committee on Armed Services, United States Congress, Washington DC, 15 March 1989, revised 5 May 1989, p. ES-1.
US Government, Department of Commerce, Emerging Technologies: A Survey of Technical and Economic Opportunities, Washington DC, Spring 1990, p. vii.
‘New Science and Technology Plan’, Current News Supplement.
For an account of these technologies see Ravinderpal Singh, ‘TransCentury Technologies’, Strategic Analysis, Vol. XIV, No. 4, July 1991, pp. 449–50.
Ravinderpal Singh, ‘Trans-Century Technologies’, p. 443.
See Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, Volume 1, passim. The second volume is devoted to the so-called ‘socio-economic areas of relevance’.
Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, Vol. 1, p. 9.
As reported by Sundaram Shankaram, ‘1βRD sets objectives %r Indian electronics sector’, The Economic Times, 28 August 1993.
Pranjal Sharma, ‘Systems failure’, India Today, 15 November 1992, p. 126.
Salim Lakha, ‘The BJP and Globalization of the Indian Economy’, p. 2.
‘Electronics exports top Rs 1000 cr mark’, Times of India, 27 June 1992.
Pranjal Sharma, ‘Systems Failure’.
Lincoln Kaye, Problem program’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 2 March 1989, p. 87.
‘lndia, U.S. Plan Link to Develop Sottware’, Asian Wall Street Journal, 8 March 1989.
The foregoing information was taken from a paper by Salim Lakha, ‘India Aims for an “Electronics Revolution”: Growth of Computer Software Industry’, pp. 1–11.
Lakha, ‘India Aims for an “Electronics Revolution” ’ p. 15.
Lakha, ‘India aims …’ p. 17.
Yogi Aggarwal, ‘Supercomputer race: Indian efforts yield results’, Frontline, 27 August 1993, pp. 79–80.
US Department of Defense, Critical Technologies Plan, p. ES-1.
‘India-US defense relations thaw’, International Defense Review, No 8,1990, p. 831.
‘Scientists denied access to US supercomputer’, Times of India, 26 May 1992.
Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, Vol. 1, pp. 298–300.
Government of India, Department of Electronics, Annual Report 1989–90, New Delhi, 1990, pp. 25–7.
‘India developing supercomputers’, Times of India, 1 October 1991.
‘India developing supercomputers’. However, elsewhere Manoj Joshi claims that it is an organisation known as ASIEO that has developed the mission computer for the LCA. See Joshi, ‘The Indigenous effort’, Frontline, 13–16 April 1991, p. 55. See also Hamish McDonald, ‘Indian computing power’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 17 December 1992, p. 74.
‘Mission computer for LCA ready’, The Hindu, 3 October 1991.
Aggarwal, ‘Supercomputer race: Indian efforts yield results’, Frontline, 27 August 1993, p. 80.
Aggarwal, ‘Supercomputer race’; ‘BARC develops supercomputer’, Times of India, 28 August 1993.
Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, Vol. 1, p. 75.
The list of activities is derived from Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, Vol. l, pp. 75–6; the assessment was provided by visiting foreign scientists.
Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, p. 76.
l05 lhe growth rate in the 6th hve year plan was 25%; ttie projected rate for the 7th plan is 35%. See Government of India, Department of Electronics, Annual Report 1989–90, p. 1.
See B. Bowonder and Sunil Mani, ‘Government Policy and Industrial Development Case of Indian Computer ManufacturingIndustry’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vo1.XXVI, No.8, 23 February, 1991; and Sudha Mahalingam, ‘Computer Industry in India: Strategies for Late-Corner Entry’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXIV, No. 42, 21 October, 1989.
‘Computer units yet to be self-sufficient’, The Statesman, 9 May 1992.
Government of India, Department of Electronics, Annual Report 1989–90, p. 3.
‘Electronics exports top Rs 1000 cr mark’, Times of India, 27 June 1992.
Department of Electronics Annual Report 1989–90, p. 8.
National Science Foundation, Indian Scientific Strengths, p. 144.
Department of Electronics Annual Report 1989–90, p. 52.
N.N. Sachitanand, ‘Dilemma of the chip maker, The Hindu, 25 July, 1991.
Sachitanand, ‘Dilemma of the chip maker’.
Sachitanand, ‘Dilemma of the chip maker’.
Sharma, India’s Lopsided Science’, p. 33.
Sharma, India’s Lopsided Science’, p. 35.
‘India may not get Russian N-reactor’, Times of India, 23 April 1992; ‘New Delhi begins operating another nuclear reactor’, Asian Defence Journal, October 1992, p. 100; Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, ‘Nuclear power and the Nuclear Fuel Cycle’ (a quarterly review of overseas events), December 1993.
The above information is taken from Peter Galbraith, Nuclear Proliferation in South Asia: Containing the Threat’, a staff report to the Committee on Foreign Relations of the US Senate, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1988, p. 4; Indian Department of Atomic Energy Annual Report 1989–90, New Delhi, 1990, para 1.1; and SIPRI (1993) as in Pakistan Times, India’s reprocessing program’, E. Bokhari, 12 May 1993.
‘Indian Defence’, The Australian, 3 November, 1988; Leonard Spector, The Undeclared Bomb: The Spread of Nuclear Weapons 1987–88, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Ballinger, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1988, pp. 102–5.
‘lndia develops new N-expertise, Statesman, 27 March 1993.
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Newsletter, June 1991, p. 1.
See for example Gita Piramel, ‘India reacts to troubled nuclear programme’, Financial Times (London), 19 September 1990.
See for example ‘“Eyewitness”, exposes lax safety at RAPS’, Times of India, 11 September 1991; and ‘Health Survey of Villages near RAPS’, Times of India, 14 September 1991. However, water taken from the river at Rawatbhata by independent observers was analysed outside India and found to contain pollution levels that were within the normally accepted safe levels. (Account from the person who took the samples given to the author.)
Akhtar Ali, ‘A Framework for Nuclear Agreement and Verification’, in Stephen Cohen (Ed.), Nuclear Proliferation in South Asia: The Prospects for Arms Control, Westview, Boulder, Colorado, 1991, p. 275.
Brahma Chellaney, ‘Regional Proliferation: Issues and Challenges’, in Cohen (Ed.), Nuclear Proliferation in South Asia; p. 299 and fn. 3.
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Status Report … 1990, Table 13, p. 100; Norliza Dali, ‘India’s Budget Boosts Space Programme Spending’, Asian Defence Journal, No. 4, April, 1993, p. 87.
Gary Milhollin, ‘India’s Missiles—With a Little Help from Our Friends’.
Prasun Sengupta, ‘India develops new satellites, launchers’, Aerospace, September 1990, p. 54.
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Status Report …1990, P. 26.
See Prasun Sengupta, ‘Indian satellites fmd military uses’, Aerospace, April 1992, p. 7. See also Sengupta, ‘India develops new satellites, launchers’.
Government of India, Department of Space, Annual Report 1989–90, New Delhi, p. 12.
Sengupta, ‘Indian Satellites find military uses’.
Hamish McDonald, ‘Price of self-reliance’, Far Eastern Economic Review, 10 December 1992, p. 48.
Milhollin, ‘India’s Missiles …’, p. 32.
Milhollin appears confident about the Scout-SLV-3 relationship. See Milhollin, India’s Missiles’, p. 32. Leonard Spector is somewhat more circumspect concerning the theory of a close relationship between the two. See The Undeclared Bomb, pp. 38–9.
Tim Fumiss, ‘India aims for polar launcher’, Flight International, 39 June 1992, p. 20.
Sengupta, ‘India develops new satellites, launchers’, p. 54.
Manoj Joshi, ‘Fiasco was foreseeable’, Times of India, 6 August 1993.
For the optimistic view see the comments of the Chairman of ISRO, Professor Rao, as reported in K. Raghunathan, ‘Rocket Deal: ISRO chief still optimistic’, The Hindu (International Edition), 31 July 1993. For the pessimistic view see R. Ramachandran, ‘ISRO must now rethink on INSAT-3’, Economic Times, 20 July 1993.
R. Ramachandran, ‘ISRO must now rethink on INSAT-3’.
For the strengths see National Science Foundation, Indian Scientic Strengths, Vol. VIII.
Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, Vol. 1, pp. 81–82.
Hormuz P. Mama and Ramon Lopez, India’s Advanced Light Helicopter’, International Defense Review, No. 9, 1989.
Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, p. 76; US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Global Arms Trade, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1991, p. 156.
See ‘Industry builds up strength’, Jane’s Defence Weekly, 26 May 1990, p. 1042.
‘Principal Indian Defence Manufacturers’, Defense and Foreign Affairs, Vol. XVIII, No. 4, April 1990, p. 39.
Science Advisory Council, Perspectives in Science and Technology, p. 81.
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Status Report 1990, p 42.
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Gordon, S. (1995). Indian Science and Technology and the Defence Industries. In: India’s Rise to Power. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230371804_2
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