Skip to main content

American Public Opinion and Foreign Policy after September 11: The Iraq War

  • Chapter
Public Participation in Foreign Policy
  • 318 Accesses

Abstract

Having entered into its ninth year in March 2011, the Iraq War is now America’s fourth longest war, behind only the Revolutionary War and the conflicts in Vietnam and Afghanistan, and exceeding in length even the Civil War and the Second World War. It has also established a record in another significant respect; it has generated far more surveys of public attitudes than any previous conflict. John Mueller (1994) described the 1991 Gulf War against Iraq as ‘the mother of all polling events’, but it has long since relinquished that title to the conflict that began with the invasion of Iraq on 19 March 2003. Although the United States has played by far the most important role in Iraq, the war has also become the topic of vast numbers of surveys in scores of other countries (some of the vast numbers of surveys are summarized in Kohut and Stokes, 2006; Holsti, 2008; Katzenstein and Keohane, 2006).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Abramowitz, A. and K. Saunders (2005) ‘Why Can’t We All Just Get Along? The Reality of a Polarized America’, The Forum, 3 (2), 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abramson, P. R., J. H. Aldrich, J. Rickershauser and D. W. Rohde (2007) ‘Fear in the Voting Booth: The 2004 Presidential Election’, Political Behavior, 29 (2), 197–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, M. (2007) ‘Bush Courts Columnists, Hill’, The Politico, 18 July.

    Google Scholar 

  • Althus, S. and D. Largio (2004) ‘When Osama Became Saddam’, PS: Political Science and Politics, 37 (4), 795–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacevich, A. J. (2006) ‘War and the Failure of the Fourth Estate’, Raritan, 26 (2), 24–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bafumi, J. and R. Shapiro (n.d.) ‘A New Partisan Voter’ [manuscript].

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J. A. III (2002) ‘The Right Way to Change a Regime’, New York Times, 25 August.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barstow, D. (2008a) ‘Message Machine: Behind Military Analysts, the Pentagon’s Hidden Hand’, New York Times, 20 April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barstow, D. (2008b) ‘Pentagon Suspends Briefings for Analysts’, New York Times, 26 April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baum, M. A. and P. B. K. Potter (2008) ‘The Relationship Between Mass Media, Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis’, Annual Review of Political Science, 11, 39–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blitz, J. (2007) ‘Blair Labels British Media a “Feral Beast”’, Financial Times, 13 June.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brecher, J. and B. Smith (2007) ‘The “Stab in the Back” Trap’, Truthout, 27

    Google Scholar 

  • April. Brooks, D. (2007) ‘Heroes and History’, New York Times, 17 July.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brownstein, R. (2007) The Second Civil War (New York: Penguin).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bumiller. E. (2003) ‘War Public Relations Machine Is Put on Full Throttle’, New York Times, 8 February.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush, G. W. (2001a) Speech to the US Congress, 20 September.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush, G. W. (2001b) Press conference with French President Jacques Chirac, 5 November.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush, G. W. (2005) Address at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD, 30 November.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheney, D. (2005) Larry King Live, 20 June.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coe, K., D. Domke, E. S. Graham, S. Lockett John and V. W. Pickard (2004) ‘No Shades of Gray’, Journal of Communication, 54 (2), 234–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, J. J. (2008) Choosing War: The Decision to Invade Iraq and Its Aftermath, Occasional Paper 5 (Washington: Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University).

    Google Scholar 

  • Danner, M. (2005) ‘The Secret War: The Downing Street Memo and the Iraq War’s Buried History’, New York Review of Books, 52 (10), 9 June.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danner, M. (2007) ‘Words in a Time of War’, Los Angeles Times, 1 June.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J. (2004) ‘Prewar Intelligence Predicted Iraqi Insurgency’, USA Today, 24 October.

    Google Scholar 

  • Entman, R. (2003) Projections of Power: Framing News, Public Opinion and US Foreign Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fenton, T. (2005) Bad News: The Decline of Reporting, The Business of News, and the Danger to All of Us (New York: Regan Books).

    Google Scholar 

  • Flibbert, A. (2006) ‘The Road to Baghdad’, Security Studies, 15 (2), 310–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foyle, D. (1999) Counting the Public In: President, Public Opinion and Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Foyle, D. (2004) ‘Leading the Public to War? The Influence of American Public Opinion on the Bush Administration’s Decision to Go to War in Iraq’, International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 6 (3), 269–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gelpi, C., J. Reiffler and P. Feaver (2007) ‘Iraq the Vote: Retrospective and Prospective Foreign Policy Judgments on Candidate Choice and Casualty Tolerance’, Political Behavior, 29 (2), 151–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gelpi, C. and J. Mueller (2006) ‘How Many Casualties Will Americans Tolerate?’, Foreign Affairs, 85 (1), 139–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, J. (2007) ‘The Will of the Uninformed’, Los Angeles Times, 24 April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M. R. and J. Miller (2002) ‘Threats and Responses: The Iraqis; US Says Hussein Intensifies Quest for A-Bomb Parts’, New York Times, 8 September.

    Google Scholar 

  • Government Accounting Office (2006) ‘GAO Report-06-305 to Congressional Requesters’, 13 January.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, J. (2002) ‘The Other War Room’, Washington Monthly, April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halper, S. and J. Clarke (2007) The Silence of the Rational Center (New York: Basic Books).

    Google Scholar 

  • Herszenhorn, D. M. (2007) ‘Democrats Aim to Reframe Iraq Debate’, New York Times, 5 September.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holsti, O. R. and Rosenau, J. N. (1984) American Leadership in World Affairs: Vietnam and the Breakdown of Consensus (London: Allen and Unwin).

    Google Scholar 

  • Holsti, O. R. (2004) Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy, 2nd edn (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Holsti, O. R. (2008) To See Ourselves as Others See Us: How Publics Abroad View the United States (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Holsti, O. R. (2011) American Public Opinion on the Iraq War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • House Budget Committee (2003a) ‘Hearing of Defense Subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee’, 27 March.

    Google Scholar 

  • House Budget Committee (2003b) ‘Hearings on FY 2004 Defense Budget Request’, 27 February.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hylton, W. S. (2007) ‘The Angry One’, GQ, January.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, L. R. and R. Y. Shapiro (2000) Politicians Don’t Pander: Political Manipulation and the Loss of Democratic Responsiveness (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, G. C. (2005) ‘Polarized Politics and the 2004 Elections’, Political Science Quarterly, 120, 199–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, G. C. (2006) Divider, Not Uniter: George W. Bush and the American People (New York: Longman).

    Google Scholar 

  • Katzenstein, P. and R. O. Keohane (2006) Anti-Americanism in Word Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, C. (2004) ‘Threat Inflation and the Marketplace of Ideas: The Selling of the Iraq War’, International Security, 29 (1), 5–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kissinger, H. A. (2007) ‘The Lessons of Vietnam’, Los Angeles Times, 31 May.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koch, A. and W. Peden (eds) (1994) The Life and Selected Writings of Jefferson (New York: Modern Library).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohut, A. and B. Stokes (2006) America Against the World: How We Are Different and Why We Are Disliked (New York: Time Books).

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, R. R. and C. Kaufman (2005) ‘Correspondence: Selling the Market Short?: Marketplace of Ideas and the Iraq War’, International Security, 29 (4), 196–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kull, S., C. Ramsay and E. Lewis (2003–04) ‘Misperceptions, the Media, and the Iraq War’, Political Science Quarterly, 118 (4), 569–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, T. E. (1920) ‘A Report on Mesopotamia by T. E. Lawrence’, Sunday Times, 22 August.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorentzen, A. (2004) ‘Cheney: Kerry Victory Will Lead to Another Terrorist Attack on US’, Associated Press, 7 September.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur, J. R. (2003) ‘The Lies We Bought’, Columbia Journalism Review, 42 (1), 62–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massing, M. (2004) ‘Now They Tell Us’, New York Review of Books, 51, 26 February.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massing, M. (2005) ‘The Press: The Enemy Within’, New York Review of Books, 52, 15 December.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCain, J. (2003) ‘The Right War for the Right Reason’, New York Times, 12 March.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mermin, J. (2004) ‘The Media’s Independence Problem’, World Policy Journal, 21 (3), 67–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milbank, D. (2003) ‘Curtains Ordered for Media Coverage of Returning Coffins’, Washington Post, 21 October.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milbank, D. (2008) ‘What the Family Would Let You See, the Pentagon Obstructs’, Washington Post, 24 April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, J. (1994) Policy and Opinion in the Gulf War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, J. (2005) ‘The Iraq Syndrome’, Foreign Affairs, 84 (6), 44–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Security Council (2005) A National Strategy for Victory in Iraq (Washington, DC: National Security Council, 30 November).

    Google Scholar 

  • NBC News (2003) ‘Interview With Vice-President Dick Cheney’, Meet the Press, 16 March.

    Google Scholar 

  • New York Times (2004) ‘The Times and Iraq’, 26 May.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novak, R. (2001) ‘No Midyear Crisis for Bush: Dubious Poll Results Aside, Bush Has Delivered on a Major Campaign Issue — Tax Cuts’, Chicago Sun Times, 2 July.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okrent, D. (2004) ‘Weapons of Mass Destruction? Or Mass Distraction?’, New York Times, 30 May.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palast, G. (2007) ‘US Media Have Lost the Will to Dig Deep’, Los Angeles Times, 27 April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perez-Pena, R. (2008) ‘The War Endures, but Where’s the Media?’, New York Times, 28 March.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center for the People and the Press (2001) ‘America’s New Internationalist Point of View’, 24 October.

    Google Scholar 

  • Popkin, S. (1991) The Reasoning Voter: Communication and Persuasion in Presidential Campaigns (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rich, F. (2008) ‘The Petraeus-Crocker Show Gets the Hook’, New York Times, 13 April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricks, T. E. (2006) Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq (New York: Pengu in Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandrolini, J. (2002) ‘Propaganda: The Art of War’, Chicago Media Watch Report.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanger, D. E. (2007) ‘Bush Shifts Terms for Measuring Progress in Iraq’, New York Times, 5 September.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schifferes, S. (2003) ‘Who Won the Media War’, BBC News Online, 18 April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, E. (2003) ‘Pentagon Contradicts General on Iraq Occupation Force’s Size’, New York Times, 28 February.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scowcroft, B. (2002) ‘Don’t Attack Saddam’, Wall Street Journal, 15 August.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shanker, T. (2005) ‘Pentagon Says Iraq Effort Limits Ability to Fight Other Conflicts; Chairman of Joint Chiefs Tells Congress of Risks’, New York Times, 5 May.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, R. and Y. Bloch-Elkon (2006a) ‘Ideological Partisanship and American Public Opinion Toward Foreign Policy’, Paper prepared for the Conference on Power and Superpower (New York, The Century Fund, Columbia University), 6 June.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, R. and Y. Bloch-Elkon (2006b) ‘Political Polarization and the Rational Public’, Paper for the Annual Conference of the American Association of Public Opinion Research, Montreal, 10 May.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, S. (2008) ‘The Price of the Surge’, Foreign Affairs, 87 (3), 57–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, R. (1993) Public Opinion and US Foreign Policy: The Controversy Over Contra Aid (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, R. (2000) The Impact of Public Opinion on US Foreign Policy Since Vietnam: Constraining the Colossus (New York: Oxford University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, R. and D. Nelson (2006) ‘Trying to Steer Public Opinion?’, Baltimore Sun, 22 January.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stolberg, S. G. and J. Zeleny (2007) ‘A Firm Bush Tells Congress Not to Dictate Policy on War’, New York Times, 13 July.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strupp, J. (2007) ‘McClatchy’s D. C Bureau Claims It’s Barred from Defense Secretary Plane’, Editor and Publisher, 23 May.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suskind, R. (2004) The Price of Loyalty: George W. Bush, The White House and the Education of Paul O’Neill (New York: Simon and Schuster).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, P. (2003) ‘Panel Faults Bush on War Costs and Risks’, New York Times, 12 March.

    Google Scholar 

  • US Department of State (n. d.) The Future of Iraq Project.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wall Street Journal (2006) ‘Fit and Unfit Reasons to Print’, Wall Street Journal, 30 June.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wittkopf, E. (1990) The Faces of Internationalism: Public Opinion and Foreign Policy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodward, B. (2006) State of Denial (New York: Simon and Schuster).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Copyright information

© 2012 Ole R. Holsti

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Holsti, O.R. (2012). American Public Opinion and Foreign Policy after September 11: The Iraq War. In: Headley, J., Reitzig, A., Burton, J. (eds) Public Participation in Foreign Policy. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230367180_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics