Abstract
This word, ‘sadism’, has been invoked frequently in both popular and intellectual forms of representation of the Holocaust: from the theories of the Frankfurt School to those of Susan Sontag and George Steiner; from Italian neo-realist cinema of the post-war era to kitsch Anglophone pornography from the 1970s to the present day; and to ‘Radical’ feminist claims about patriarchal sex.1 Cultural attempts to account for the horror of the Holocaust have repeatedly invoked a drive assumed to be sexual and which many have called ‘sadistic’ or ‘sadomasochistic’. One way in which to explore this problem is through the study of sexualized slippages and the ways in which they operate in filmic, literary and historical visions of the Holocaust, as Laura Frost, Kriss Ravetto, Andrew Hewitt, myself and others have attempted.2 This chapter, however, will consider the context of such representations by considering the longer history of the use of the word ‘sadism’, posing the question of how a pathology invented in late nineteenth-century psychiatry came to be used in post-war diagnoses of Nazism and the Holocaust in the work of the Frankfurt School philosophers, in particular, Adorno.3 The aim of such a genealogical sketch will be to show that the invocation of this word to describe Nazi genocidal cruelty goes to the very heart of modern European discourses of violence, sex and civilizational progress, discourses that constructed unreasoned cruelty as a form of barbarous resistance to the teleological imagination of history; discourses that persist still today in attempts to account for the subjectivity of the Holocaust perpetrator.
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Notes
Theodor Adorno (1974) Minima Moralia, trans. E. Jeffcott (London: NLB);
T. Adorno, E. Frenkel-Brunswick, D. Levison and R. Nevitt Sanford (1950) The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper & Row);
Susan Sontag (1980) ‘Fascinating Fascism’ in Under the Sign of Saturn (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux), pp. 73–105;
George Steiner (1967) ‘Night Words’ in Language and Silence: Essays on Language, Literature and the Inhuman (New York: Atheneum), pp. 74–7.
Laura Frost (2002) Sex Drives: Fantasies of Fascism in Literary Modernism (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press);
Kriss Ravetto (2001) The Unmaking of Fascist Aesthetics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press);
Andrew Hewitt (1996) Political Inversions: Homosexuality, Fascism, and the Modernist Imaginary (Stanford: Stanford University Press);
Alison Moore (2005) ‘Sadomasochistic Desire as Fascism’, Lesbian and Gay Psychology Review, 6:3 (November), 163–76;
Lynn Rapaport (2003) ‘Holocaust Pornography: Profaning the Sacred in “Ilsa, She-Wolf of the SS”’, Shofar, 22:1 (Fall), 53–79.
This chapter presents a condensed account of the genealogy of sadism elaborated in Alison Moore (2010) Sexual Myths of Modernity: Sadism, Masochism and Historical Teleology (Lanham: Lexington).
Carolyn J. Dean (2004) The Fragility of Empathy after the Holocaust (Ithaca: Cornell University Press), p. 22.
See Carolyn J. Dean (1992) The Self and its Pleasures: Bataille, Lacan, and the History of the Decentered Subject (Ithaca: Cornell University Press); Lisa Downing, ‘Eros and Thanatos in European and American Sexology’ (chapter 11, this volume); and Chiara Beccalossi, ‘Archivio delle psicopatie sessuali (Archive of sexual psychopathologies): first European sexological scientific journal, 1896–1904’, paper delivered at ‘Sexual Histories: Bodies and Desires Uncovered’ conference, Centre for Medical History, University of Exeter, July 2007.
See also Maria Tatar (1995) Lustmord: Sexual Murder in Weimar Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
Joseph-René-Raoul Lasserre (1898) Origine animale, innéité et éclosion de la perversion sadique, thèse pour le doctorat en médecine (Bordeaux: Imprimerie du Midi), p. 13.
For example, Léon-Henri Thoinot (1898) Attentats aux moeurs et perversion du sens génital (Paris: O. Doin);
Philippe-Joseph Boileau de Castelnau (1854) Des Prodomes de la folie considérés au point de vue médico-légal (Paris: L. Martinet);
Alexandre-Jacques-François Brierre de Boismont (1827) Observations médico-légales sur la monomanie homicide (Paris: Mme Auger Méquignon);
Alexandre Lacassagne (1899) Vacher l’éventreur et les crimes sadiques (Lyon: A. Storck);
Pasquale Penta (1893) I Pervertimenti Sessuali nel’uomo et Vincenzo Verzeni, strangolatore di donne. Con figure et ritratti orginali (Napoli: Luigi Pierro);
Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1903) Psychopathia Sexualis mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der conträren Sexualempfindung. Eine medicinisch-gerichtliche Studie für Ärzte end Juristen, zwolfte Auflage (Stuttgart: Verlag von Ferdinand Enke).
The others mentioned here are discussed in Dimitry Stefanowsky (1882) ‘Le Passivisme’, Archives de l’anthropologie criminelle et de sciences pénales, Tome VII:37 (15 Janvier), 294–8.
Dr Émile Laurent (1903) Sadisme et Masochisme: Les Perversions sexuelles, physiologie, psychologie, thérapeutique (Paris: Vigot Frères), pp. 83–91.
Émile Zola (2001 [1890]) La Bête humaine (Paris: Gallimard), pp. 163–5.
Victor Molinier (1879) La Torture: étude historique et philosophique (Toulouse: Mme Ve Gimet, Librairie), pp. 3–.
See Klaus Theweleit (1977) Männerfantasien, 2 vols (Frankfurt: Strömfeld).
See François Rouquet, Fabrice Virgili and Danièle Voldman (eds) (2007) Amours, guerres et sexualité1914–1945 (Paris: Gallimard).
Louis Morin (1918) Comment le Docteur Boche, pour justifier à l’avance les infamies allemandes, accusait de sadisme sanglant les Français en général et les Parisiens en particulier (Paris: Charles Bosse), n.p.
Eugen Kogon (1950) The Theory and Practice of Hell: The German Concentration Camps and the System behind them, trans. H. Norden (New York: Farrar & Strauss).
Eugen Kogon (1995) Ideologie und Praxis der Unmenschlichkeit: Erfahrungen mit dem Nationalsozialismus (Berlin: Quadriga). Quotations from Kogon (1950) The Theory and Practice of Hell, p. 11.
Two obvious examples of this sexualization include the homophobic scapegoating of Robert Brasillach, and the ritualized shaving of the heads of women often falsely assumed to have been sexual collaborators. See Alice Kaplan (2000) The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), and
Fabrice Virgili (2000) La France ‘virile’: des femmes tondues à la liberation (Paris: Payot).
Anon. (1944) A Paris — Sous La Botte Des Nazis (Paris: Editions Raymond Schall).
Ranjana Khanna (2003) Dark Continents: Psychoanalysis and Colonialism (Durham: Duke University Press).
Sigmund Freud (1989 [1930]) ‘Civilisation and its Discontents’ in Peter Gay (ed.) The Freud Reader (London: Vintage), p. 742.
Sigmund Freud (1989 [1924]), ‘The Dissolution of the Oedipus Complex’ in Peter Gay (ed.) The Freud Reader (London: Vintage), pp. 661–4.
See Wilhelm Reich (1972) Sex-Pol: Essay 1929–1934 (New York: Vintage). Later Reich turned to female heterosexual desire to explain the popular appeal of Nazism: see (1970) The Mass Psychology of Fascism, trans. Vincent R. Carfagno (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux);
Erich Fromm (1941) Escape from Freedom (New York: Farrar and Reinhart); Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality.
Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer (1972 [1947]) Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. John Cumming (New York: Continuum), p. 86.
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Moore, A. (2011). Sadism as Social Violence: From Fin-de-Siècle Degeneration to the Critiques of Nazi Sexuality in Frankfurt School Thought. In: Fisher, K., Toulalan, S. (eds) Bodies, Sex and Desire from the Renaissance to the Present. Genders and Sexualities in History. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230354128_13
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