Abstract
The numerous accounts of ‘test-tube babies’ that appeared in the interwar period documented the cultivation of human material. But although these stories drew upon biological practices and were endorsed by scientists, human tissue was in fact hard to maintain and was used far less than chick tissue. Human material rarely survived for more than a few days in vitro, and generated little results of scientific or medical interest. But researchers continued to obtain and culture various types of human tissues, as they believed that any findings obtained from them would be more applicable to patients.
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Notes
John E. Harris, ‘Structure and Function in the Living Cell’, in Michael Johnson and Michael Abercrombie (eds), New Biology Five (London: Penguin, 1948), pp. 26–47, on p. 45.
Anon., ‘Progress Made in Study of Common Cold: Virus Propagation in Human Tissue’, The Times (28 July 1954).
Nick Hopwood, ‘Producing Development: The Anatomy of Human Embryos and the Norms of Wilhelm His’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Vol. 74, no. 1 (2000), pp. 29–79.
Adele E. Clark, ‘Research Materials and Reproductive Sciences in the United States, 1910–1940’, in Gerald Geison (ed.), Physiology in the American Context, 1850–1940 (Bethesda: Williams and Wilkins, 1987), pp. 323–50.
For a later case study, see Warwick Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls: Turning Kuru Scientists into Whitemen (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008).
See Hopwood, ‘Producing Development’ (2000), pp. 38–9.
For a first-hand account, see George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981).
Alexis Carrel and Montrose Burrows, ‘Human Sarcoma Cultivated Outside of the Body’, Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 55 (1910), p. 1732.
Carrel and Burrows, ‘Human Sarcoma Cultivated Outside of the Body’ (1910), p. 1732.
Ibid. On Carrel’s emphasis on rigorous technical training, see Witkowski, ‘Alexis Carrel and the Mysticism of Tissue Culture’ (1979).
For more on the practices that transform natural materials into experimental entities, see Anderson, Collectors of Lost Souls (2008), pp. 133–61.
Michael Lynch, ‘Sacrifice and the Transformation of the Animal Body into a Scientific Object: Laboratory Culture and Ritual Practice in the Neurosciences’, Social Studies of Science, Vol. 18 (1988), pp. 265–89.
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idem, ‘Cultivation in Vitro of Malignant Tumours’, Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol. 13 (1911), pp. 571–5.
Montrose Burrows, ‘The Cultivation of Human Cancer Cells in Vitro’, Medical Record, Vol. 86 (1914), p. 649.
Burrows, ‘Cultivation of Human Cancer Cells’ (1914), p. 649.
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R.A. Lambert, ‘Technique of Cultivating Human Tissues in Vitro’, Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol. 24 (1916), pp. 367–72.
idem, ‘The Comparative Resistance of Bacteria and Human Tissue Cells to Certain Common Antiseptics’, Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol. 24 (1916), pp. 683–8.
Burrows, ‘Cultivation of Human Cancer Cells’ (1914), p. 649.
Lambert, ‘Cultivating Human Tissues’ (1917), p. 372.
Lambert, ‘Comparative Resistance of Bacteria and Human Tissue’ (1916), pp. 683–4.
As listed in a comprehensive bibliography of tissue culture work compiled in 1953. See Margaret Murray and Gregory Kopech, Bibliography of the Research in Tissue Culture, 1884–1950: An Index to the Literature of the Living Cell Cultivated In Vitro (New York: Academic Press, 1953).
See also Henry Harris, The Cells of the Body: A History of Somatic Cell Genetics (Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Spring Harbor Press, 1995), p. 58.
David Thomson and John Gordon Thomson, ‘The Cultivation of Human Tumour Tissue in vitro’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, London, Vol. 7, no. 1 (1914), pp. 7–20, on p. 8.
Bland-Sutton served as President of the Royal College of Surgeons between 1923–25. See Anon., ‘Sir John Bland-Sutton’, Nature, Vol. 139 (1937), pp. 223–4. Thomson and Thomson, ‘Cultivation of Human Tissue’.
idem, ‘The Cultivation of Human Tissue in vitro — Preliminary Note’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character, Vol. 88 (1914), pp. 90–1, on p. 90.
Thomson and Thomson, ‘Cultivation of Human Tumour Tissue’ (1914), p. 8.
These specimens were donated to the Royal College of Surgeons following Strangeways’s death in 1926, although the collection was destroyed during a bombing raid in World War II. See E.D. Strangeways, ‘1905–1926’ (1962), p. 10.
Willmer, ‘Tissue Culture from the Standpoint of General Physiology’ (1928), p. 284.
Strangeways, The Technique of Tissue Culture (1924).
Glücksmann to Cantor (15 March 1980). For publications arising from this research, see Alfred Glücksmann, ‘Preliminary Observations on the Quantitative Examination of Human Biopsy Material Taken from Irradiated Carcinoma’, British Journal of Radiology, Vol. 14 (1941), pp. 187–98.
idem, ‘Quantitative Histological Analysis of Radiation-Effects in Human Carcinomata’, British Medical Bulletin, Vol. 4 (1946), pp. 26–30.
idem, ‘The Influence of Tumour Histology, Duration of Symptoms and Age of Patient on the Radiocurability of Cervix Tumours’, British Journal of Radiology, Vol. 22 (1949), pp. 90–5.
Honor Fell, ‘Cell Biology’, in Strangeways, Spear and Fell, History of the Strangeways Research Laboratory (1962), pp. 19–32, on p. 25.
Spear, ‘Tissue Culture’ (1928).
See for example, Michael G. Mulinos, ‘Cycloserine: An Antibiotic Paradox’, Antibiotics Annual (1956), pp. 131–5.
Howard W. Larsh, Stanley L. Silberg and Agnes Hinton, ‘Use of the Tissue Culture Method in Evaluating Fungal Agents’, Antibiotics Annual, Vol. (1957), pp. 918–22.
Charles M. Pomerat, ‘Use of Tissue Cultures in Drug Testing Operations’, in Maurice B. Visscher (ed.), Methods in Medical Research: Volume 4 (Year Book Publishers, 1951), p. 211.
On the development and impact of antibiotics, see Robert Bud, Penicillin: Triumph and Tragedy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
A. Moscona, O.A. Trowell and E.N. Willmer, ‘Methods’, in E.N. Willmer (ed.), Cells and Tissues in Culture: Methods, Biology and Physiology, Volume One (London: Academic Press, 1965), pp. 19–86.
K. Russell, ‘Tissue Culture — A Brief Historical Review’, Clio Medica, Vol. 4 (1969), pp. 110–19.
Charity Waymouth, ‘Construction and Use of Synthetic Media’, in Willmer (ed.), Cells and Tissues in Culture (1965), pp. 99–132.
Phillip R. White, Cultivation of Animal and Plant Cells (New York: Ronald Press, 1962).
For more detail on George Gey and the roller tube method, see Landecker (2007), pp. 112–19; A. McGehee Harvey, ‘Johns Hopkins — The Birthplace of Tissue Culture: The Story of Ross G. Harrison, Warren H. Lewis and George O. Gey’, The Johns Hopkins Medical Journal, Vol. 136 (1975), pp. 142–9.
A.E. Feller, John F. Enders and T.H. Weller, ‘The Prolonged Coexistence of Vaccinia Virus in High Titre and Living Cells in Roller Tube Cultures of Chick Embryo Tissues’, Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol. 72 (1940), pp. 367–88, on p. 385.
John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller and Frederick C. Robbins, ‘Cultivation of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Various Human Embryonic Tissues’, Science, Vol. 109 (1949), pp. 85–7, on p. 86.
Harris, The Cells of the Body (1995), pp. 40–1.
John Paul, ‘Achievement and Challenge’, in Claudio Barigozzi (ed.), Origin and Natural History of Cell Lines (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1978), pp. 3–10.
Joan H. Fujimara, Crafting Science: A Sociohistory of the Quest for the Genetics of Cancer (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 44–6.
Audrey Fjelde, ‘Human Tumor Cells in Tissue Culture’, Cancer, Vol. 8 (1955), pp. 845–51, on p. 845.
Landecker (2007), pp. 135–7. See also, Russell W. Brown and James H.M. Henderson, ‘The Mass Production and Distribution of He La Cells at Tuskegee Institute, 1953–1955’, Journal of the History of Medicine, Vol. 38 (1983), pp. 415–31.
Charles M. Pomerat, ‘Use of Tissue Cultures in Drug-testing Operations’, in Maurice B. Visscher (ed.), Methods in Medical Research (Chicago: Year Book Publishers, 1951), pp. 266–71, on p. 267.
W.F. Scherer, Jerome T. Syverton and George O. Gey, ‘Studies on the Propagation In Vitro of Poliomyelitis Virus’, Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol. 97 (1953), pp. 695–715, on p. 707.
Howard W. Larsh, Stanley L. Silberg and Agnes Hinton, ‘The Use of the Tissue Culture Method in Evaluating Antifungal Agents’, Antibiotics Annual (1957), pp. 918–22, on p. 922.
Anon., ‘Congress for Cell Biology Opens: President on Interest in Tissue Culture’, The Times (29 August 1957).
On positive postwar coverage of science and medicine, see Robert Bud, ‘Penicillin and the new Elizabethans’, British Journal for the History of Science, Vol. 31 (1998), pp. 305–33.
Jane Gregory and Steve Miller, Science in Public: Communication, Culture, and Credibility (London: Basic Books, 1998), pp. 37–9.
Fell, ‘Fashion in Cell Biology’ (1960).
Anon., ‘Nobel Prize for Medicine: Virus Research in United States’, the Manchester Guardian (22 October 1954).
Alistair Cooke, ‘America and Polio: A Day of Rejoicing’, the Manchester Guardian (16 April 1955).
Anon., ‘“Most Stringent Tests Known” for Polio Vaccine: Reassurance by Research Scientist’, the Manchester Guardian (9 March 1956).
Alistair Cooke, ‘Fresh Discovery by Dr Salk: Offshoot of Polio Work may help Cancer Research’, the Manchester Guardian (28 December 1957).
Anon., ‘Human Cells Grown in Laboratory’, The Times (8 September 1960).
Anon., ‘Advance in Study of Common Cold: Viruses Propagated in Tissue Culture’, The Times (29 January 1960).
idem, ‘Tracking Down the Causes of the Common Cold: Slow but Sure Progress Being Made’, The Times (18 January 1957).
idem, ‘Step Forward in Fighting Colds: Virus Under Microscope’, the Manchester Guardian (10 September 1953).
Anon., ‘Seeking Methods of Protection from Atomic Radiation: Work of the Medical Research Council’, the Manchester Guardian (21 July 1955).
Anon., ‘Tracing Heredity in Virus and Man: Cancer Research’, The Times (5 September 1959).
idem, ‘No Cancer in Rats from Tobacco Tar Tests — But Overgrowth in Human Lung’, the Manchester Guardian (11 July 1956).
Anon., ‘Hair Grows on a Dish’, Daily Mail (13 February 1950).
idem, ‘Miss Hardy Grows Hair on a Plate — in Three Weeks’, the Daily Mirror (13 February 1950).
John E. Harris, ‘Structure and Function in the Living Cell’, in M.L. Johnson and Michael Abercrombie (eds), New Biology, Five (London: Penguin, 1948), pp. 26–47, on p. 26.
Harris, ‘Structure and Function in the Living Cell’ (1948), p. 45.
Science Correspondent, ‘The Laboratory of the Living Cell’, The Times (13 June 1958).
Fell, ‘The Cell as an Individual’ (1962).
Andrew Reynolds, ‘The Cell’s Journey: From Metaphorical to Literal Factory’, Endeavour, Vol. 31 (2007), pp. 65–70.
Fell, ‘The Cell as an Individual’ (1962).
Harris, ‘Structure and Function in the Living Cell’ (1948), p. 46.
Margaret R. Murray, ‘Tissue Culture Procedures in Medical Installations, A: Sources and Handling of Material’, in Maurice B. Visscher (ed.), Methods in Medical Research: Volume 4 (New York: Year Book Publishers, 1951), pp. 211–12, on p. 211.
Paul, ‘Achievement and Challenge’ (1978), pp. 4–5.
On the American Type Culture Collection, see Toby Appel, Shaping Biology: the National Science Foundation and American Biological Research, 1945–1975 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000). On changes in the freezing, storage and shipping of cultured material, see Landecker (2007), pp. 153–9.
Virginia J. Evans, Naomi M. Hawkins, Benton B. Westfall and Wilton R. Earle, ‘Studies on Culture Lines Derived from Mouse Liver Parenchymatous Cells Grown in Long Term Tissue Culture’, Cancer Research, Vol. 18 (1958), pp. 261–6.
Cooke, ‘Fresh Discovery by Dr Salk’ (1959).
On the Food and Drug Administration’s policy, see Gretchen Vogel, ‘FDA Weighs Using Tumor Cell Lines for Vaccine Development’, Science, Vol. 285 (1999), pp. 1826–7.
E.N. Willmer, Tissue Culture (Third edition: London: Methuen & Co., 1964), pp. 57, 61.
E.N. Willmer, ‘Introduction’, in Willmer (ed.), Cells and Tissues in Culture: Methods, Biology and Physiology, Volume One (1965), pp. 1–17, on p. 11.
See Michael Gold, A Conspiracy of Cells: One Woman’s Immortal Legacy and the Medical Scandal it Caused (State University of New York Press, 1985).
Alfred Glücksmann, ‘Cell Deaths in Normal Vertebrate Ontogeny’, Biological Reviews, Vol. 26 (1951), pp. 56–89.
See also idem, ‘Mitosis and Degeneration in the Morphogenesis of the Human Foetal Lung In Vitro’, Zeitschrift fur Zellfurschung und Mikroskopiche Anatomie, Vol. 64 (1964), pp. 101–10.
Ilse Lasnitzki, ‘The Effect of 3–4 Benzpyrene on Human Foetal Lung Grown In Vitro’, British Journal of Cancer, Vol. 10 (1956), pp. 510–16.
idem, ‘Observations on the Effects of Condensates from Cigarette Smoke on Foetal Lung In Vitro’, British Journal of Cancer, Vol. 12 (1958), pp. 547–52.
idem, ‘The Effect of a Hydrocarbon-enriched Fraction of Cigarette Smoke Condensate on Human Fetal Lung Grown in Vitro’, Cancer Research, Vol. 28 (1968), pp. 510–16.
Margaret Brazier, Medicine, Patients and the Law (London: Penguin, 2003).
Maurice Pappworth, Human Guinea Pigs: Experimentation on Man (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967), pp. 91–4, 125–6.
Susan C. Lawrence, ‘Beyond the Grave — The Use and Meaning of Human Body Parts: An Historical Introduction’, in Robert Weir (ed.), Stored Tissue Samples: Legal, Ethical and Public Policy Issues (Iowa: University of Iowa Press, 1998), pp. 111–42, on p. 122.
Lynn M. Morgan, Icons of Life: A Cultural History of Human Embryos (University of California Press, 2009).
idem, ‘“Properly Disposed Of”: A History of Embryo Disposal and the Changing Claims on Fetal Remains’, Medical Anthropology, Vol. 21 (2002), pp. 247–74.
Susan Lederer, Flesh and Blood: Organ Transplantation and Blood Transfusion in Twentieth Century America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 24–5. Lederer has elsewhere argued that where opposition to these experimental procedures did arise, it was likely to emanate from US antivivisectionist groups, who linked the dissection of animals for tissue to the mistreatment of patients.
See Lederer, Subjected to Science (1995), pp. 77–100.
Huxley, ‘The Tissue Culture King’ (1970), pp. 355–8.
A Pathologist, ‘Cinematography and the Microscope’ (1935), p. 740.
Anon., ‘Tracing Heredity in Virus and Man’ (1959).
Anon., ‘Vaccine Cultivated in Human Embryo Cells: Work on Common Cold Research’, the Guardian (26 July 1961).
Anon., ‘Advance in Study of Common Cold’ (1960).
Ruth Faden, quoted in Rebecca Skloot, ‘Henrietta’s Dance’, Johns Hopkins Magazine (April 2000). Available online at http://www.jhu.edu/jhumag/0400web/01.html.
Catherine Waldby and Robert Mitchell, Tissue Economies: Blood, Organs and Cell Lines in Late Capitalism (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2006), pp. 33–4.
See also Arjun Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
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© 2011 Duncan Wilson
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Wilson, D. (2011). Converting Human Material into Tissue Culture, c.1910–70. In: Tissue Culture in Science and Society. Science, Technology and Medicine in Modern History. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230307513_4
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