Abstract
For the older generation of ‘genocide scholars’, an intimate relationship between genocide and modernity seemed so obvious as to hardly warrant investigation.1 After all, the frequency and scale of genocides in all parts of the globe during the twentieth century suggested that modernization crises regularly resulted in the destruction of human communities. It remained to reconstruct and compare cases by mixing the ingredients of the standard recipe: a base of utopian ideology, a packet of racial enmity, plenty of state terror and some indifferent bystanders, topped off by an uncaring global community. These scholars also had an activist agenda, more interested in predicting and preventing genocide in the contemporary world by exhorting the United States, where they lived, to ‘humanitarian intervention’, than in reflecting on the deeper causes of civil wars and regional conflicts.2 There seemed little point in pondering the nuances of such concepts when people were being displaced and killed en masse today.
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Notes
For example, H. Fein, ‘Definition and Discontent: Labelling, Detecting, and Explaining Genocide in the Twentieth Century’, Jahrbuch für Historische Friedensforschung, special edition, Genozid in der Modernen Geschichte, eds, S. Förster and G. Hirschfeld, 7 (1999)
S. Totten, ‘The Intervention and Prevention of Genocide: Sisyphean or Doable?’, Journal of Genocide Research, 6, 2 (2004), 229–47. For com-mentary, see A. D. Moses, ‘Why the Discipline of “Genocide Studies” Has Trouble Explaining How Genocides End?’, Social Science Research Council, http://howgenocidesend.ssrc.org/Moses/. December 2006. Prominent exceptions to this trend are the English scholars Mark Levene and Martin Shaw: Levene, ‘A Dissenting Voice: Part 1’, Journal of Genocide Research, 6, 2 (2004), 153–66, and ‘A Dissenting Voice, Part 2’, Journal of Genocide Research, 6, 3 (2004), 431–46; Shaw, What is Genocide? (Cambridge: Polity, 2007).
E. Rothstein, ‘Broaching the Cultural Logic of Modernity’, Modern Language Quarterly, 61, 2 (2000), 363.
B. Yack, The Fetishism of Modernities: Epochal Self-Consciousness in Contemporary Social and Political Thought (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1997)
J. Schmidt, ‘What Enlightenment Project?’, Political Theory, 28, 6 (2000), 734–57.
J. Kaye and B. Strath, ‘Introduction’, in Kaye and Strath, eds, Enlightenment and Genocide, Contradictions of Modernity (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2000).
S. T. Katz, Post-Holocaust Dialogues: Critical Studies in Modern Jewish Thought (New York: New York University Press, 1983), pp. 258–9.
D. J. Goldhagen made analogous claims about the assimiliationist demands of nineteenth-century German liberals, which he described as ‘eliminationist’: Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans the Holocaust (New York: Knopf, 1996).
A more nuanced case for the Enlightenment’s complicity in the Holocaust by virtue of its hostility to particularity is advanced by B. Lang, Act and Idea in the Nazi Genocide (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 186–95.
S. T. Katz, The Holocaust in Historical Context, vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). Volume two has not appeared at the time of writing.
Z. Bauman, Postmodern Ethics (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), p. 227.
W. D. Rubinstein, Genocide: A History (Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2004).
Good surveys of the literature are D. Stone, Constructing the Holocaust: A Study in Historiography (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2003)
T. Rohkrämer, ‘Antimodernism, Reactionary Modernity, and National Socialism: Technocratic Tendencies in Germany, 1890–1945’, Contemporary European History, 8, 1 (1999), 29–50
A. Beyerchen, ‘Rational Means and Irrational Ends: Thoughts on the Technology of Racism in the Third Reich’, Central European History, 30, 3 (1997), 386–402
M. Roseman, ‘National Socialism and Modernization’, in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, ed., R. Bessel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 197–229.
D. Stone, History, Modernity, and Mass Atrocity: Essays on the Holocaust and Genocide (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2006).
V. Lal, ‘The Concentration Camp and Development: the Pasts and Futures of Genocide’, in Colonialism and Genocide, eds, A. D. Moses and D. Stone (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 124–47
D. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).
Exceptions are S. Clark, From Enlightenment to Risk: Social Theory and Modern Societies (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006)
J. Shipway, ‘Modern by Analogy: Modernity, Shoah and the Tasmanian Genocide’, Journal of Genocide Research, 7, 2 (2005), 205–19
J. Docker, ‘The Enlightenment, Genocide, Postmodernity’, Journal of Genocide Research, 5, 3 (2003), 339–60
A. Kimura, ‘Genocide and the Modern Mind: Intention and Structure’, Journal of Genocide Research, 5, 3 (2003), 405–20
M. Freeman, ‘Genocide, Civilization and Modernity’, British Journal of Sociology, 46, 2 (1995), 207–23.
I take this concept from G. Hage, ‘”Comes a Time We Are All Enthusiasm”: Understanding Palestinian Suicide Bombers in Times of Exighophobia’, Public Culture, 15, 1 (2003), 65–89.
See D. Stone, ‘Raphael Lemkin on the Holocaust’, Journal of Genocide Research, 7, 4 (2005), 539–50.
N. Elias, Über den Prozeß der Zivilisation: soziogenetische und psychogenetische Untersuchungen, 2 vols, rev. edn (Bern: Francke, 1969)
D. Smith, Norbert Elias and Modern Social Theory (London: Sage Publications, 2001).
R. van Krieken, Norbert Elias (London: Routledge, 1998), chapter four.
N. Elias, The Germans: Power Struggles and the Development of Habitus in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, trans. and preface by E. Dunning and S. Mennell; (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996).
E. Dunning and S. Mennell, ‘Elias on Germany, Nazism, and the Holocaust: On the Balance Between “Colonizing” and “De-Civilizing” Trends in the Social Development of Western Europe’, British Journal of Sociology, 45, 3 (1995), 339–57.
Lord Vansittart, ‘The Problem of Germany: A Discussion’, International Affairs, 21, 2 (1945), 313–24.
A. de Swaan, ‘Dyscivilization, Mass Extermination and the State’, Theory, Culture and Society, 28, 2–3 (2001), 265–76.
M. Jay, The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and Institute for Social Research, 1923–1950 (New York: Little Brown, 1973).
M. Horkheimer and T. W. Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. J. Cummings (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1972).
The section on ‘Element of Anti-Semitism’ was added in 1947. Commentary: J. Schmidt, ‘Language, Mythology and Enlightenment: Historical Notes on Horkheimer and Adorno’s Dialectic of Enlightenment’, Social Research, 65, 4 (1998), 807–38
J. Habermas, ‘The Entwinement of Myth and Enlightenment: Re-Reading Dialectic of Enlightenment’, New German Critique, 26 (1982), 13–30
A. Honneth, ‘The Possibility of a Disclosing Critique of Society: The Dialectic of Enlightenment in Light of Current Debates in Social Criticism’, Constellations, 7, 1 (2000), 116–27
A. Hewitt, ‘A Feminine Dialectic of Enlightenment? Horkheimer and Adorno Revisited’, New German Critique, 56 (1992), 143–70
C. Rocco, ‘Between Modernity and Postmodernity: Reading Dialectic of Enlightenment against the Grain’, Political Theory, 22, 1 (1994), 71–97.
See A. Rabinbach, ‘Why Were the Jews Sacrificed? The Place of Anti-Semitism in Dialectic of Enlightenment’, New German Critique, 81 (2000), 55.
Caillois wrote about traditional rituals of excess and chaos that he thought regenerated the collective order. See J. Clifford, ‘On Ethnographic Surrealism’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23, 4 (1981), 559.
Ibid., pp. 62, 83, 106, 170. Y. Sherratt, ‘The Dialectic of Enlightenment: A Contemporary Reading’, History of the Human Sciences, 12, 3 (1999), 41–4.
Ibid., p. 168. D. J. Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York: Knopf, 1996).
M. Jay, ‘The Jews and the Frankfurt School: Critical Theory’s Analysis of Anti-Semitism’, New German Critique, 19 (1980), 147.
R. Rorty, ‘The Overphilosophication of Politics’, Constellations, 7, 1 (2000), 128–32.
J. Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 9–10.
K. Marx, Colonialism and Modernization, ed. and intro. S. Avineri (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1968)
R. H. King, Race, Culture, and the Intellectuals, 1940–1970 (Washington, DC and Baltimore, MD: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).
T. W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswick, Daniel Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanford. The Authoritarian Personality (New York, Harper, 1950).
E. Gellner, Culture, Identity, and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 89–90
M. Marrus, ‘Hannah Arendt and the Dreyfus Affair’, New German Critique, 66 (1995), 147–61
S. E. Aschheim, ‘Nazism, Culture and The Origins of Totalitarianism: Hannah Arendt and the Discourse of Evil’, New German Critique, 70 (1997), 117–39
W. Laqueur, ‘The Arendt Cult: Hannah Arendt as Political Commentator’, Journal of Contemporary History, 33, 4 (1998), 483–96
R. Wolin, ‘Operation Shylock: Arendt, Eichmann, and the “Unheimlichkeit” of Jewish Identity’, History and Memory, 8, 2 (1996), 9–34.
Sympathetic studies are R. J. Bernstein, Hannah Arendt and the Jews (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996)
S. Benhabib, The Reluctant Modernism of Hannah Arendt (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996)
N. Curthoys, ‘The Politics of Holocaust Representation: the Worldly Typologies of Hannah Arendt’, Arena Journal, 16, (2001), 49–74.
See also D. R. Villa, Politics, Philosophy, Terror: Essays on the Thought of Hannah Arendt (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).
H. Arendt, Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, edited with an interpretive essay by R. Beiner (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1982), chapter eight, ‘Evil, Thinking, and Judging’, 154–78.
H. Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, rev. edn (New York: Penguin, 1965), p. 295.
H. Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958), pp. 27, 39–40.
H. F. Pitkin, The Attack of the Blob: Hannah Arendt’s Concept of the Social (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
P. Spencer, ‘From Rosa Luxemburg to Hannah Arendt: Socialism, Barbarism and the Extermination Camps’, The European Legacy, 11, 5 (2006), 525–40.
H. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, 2nd edn. (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1958), 125. Contrary to Lenin, she thought (p. 138) that ‘Imperialism must be considered the first state in political rule of the bourgeoisie rather than the last stage of capitalism’.
B. Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1966)
R. Dahrendorf, Society and Democracy in Germany (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968).
See the fundamental critique of D. Blackbourn and G. Eley, The Peculiarities of German History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984).
A. N. Flakne, ‘Beyond Banality and Fatality: Arendt, Heidegger and Jaspers on Political Speech’, New German Critique, 86 (2002), 3–18.
Y. Lozowick, Hitler’s Bureaucrats: The Nazi Security Police and the Banality of Evil (New York: Continuum, 2002)
M. T. Allen, ‘The Banality of Evil Reconsidered: SS Mid-Level Managers of Extermination Through Work’, Central European History, 30 (1997), 253–94.
H. Arendt, The Life of Mind — Thinking — Willing (New York and London: Harvest/HJB Book, 1978), p. 4; idem, Eichmann in Jerusalem, p. 287. See Lang, Act and Idea in the Nazi Genocide, for an attempt to argue that the Nazis were consciously committing evil.
H. Arendt, ‘Thinking and Moral Considerations: A Lecture’, Social Research, 38, 3 (1971), pp. 418, 437.
H. Arendt, ‘The Concept of History’, in Between Past and Future: Eight Exercises in Political Thought (New York: Viking, 1961), pp. 41–90;
S. E. Aschheim, ‘Against Social Science: Jewish Intellectuals, the Critique of Liberal-Bourgeois Modernity, and the (Ambiguous) Legacy of Radical Weimar Theory’, in In Times of Crisis: Essays on European Culture, Germans and the Jews (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001), pp. 23–43.
H. Arendt, ‘The History of a Great Crime’, Commentary, 13, 3 (1952), 304.
P. Baehr, ‘Identifying the Unprecedented: Hannah Arendt, Totalitarianism, and the Critique of Sociology’, American Sociological Review, 67, 6 (2002), 804–31.
For example, R. H. King and D. Stone (eds), Hannah Arendt and the Uses of History: Imperialism, Nation, Race and Genocide (New York: Berghahn Books, 2007).
Symptomatic is H. Fein, ‘Revolutionary and Antirevolutionary Genocides: A Comparison of State Murders in Democratic Kampuchea, 1975 to 1979, and in Indonesia, 1965 to 1966’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34, 4 (1993), 796–823.
E. Traverso, Understanding The Nazi Genocide: Marxism after Auschwitz (London: Polity Press, 1999)
idem, The Marxists and the Jewish Question (New Jersey: The Humanities Press, 1994).
E. Traverso, The Origins of Nazi Violence, trans. J. Lloyd (New York: The New Press, 2003), p. 4.
See the critique of N. Geras, The Contract of Mutual Indifference: Political Philosophy after the Holocaust (London: Verso, 1998)
P. Spencer, ‘The Shoah and Marxism: Behind and Beyond Silence’, in Re-Presenting the Shoah for the Twenty-First Century, ed., R. Lentin (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004), pp. 155–77.
H. Arendt, ‘Introduction’, in W. Benjamin, Illuminations, trans. H. Zohn (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970), pp. 50–1.
M. Foucault, Society Must be Defended: Lectures at the Collège de France 1975–76, trans. D. Macey (London: Penguin, 2004).
Z. Bauman, ‘Sociology after the Holocaust’, British Journal of Sociology, 39, 4 (1988), 469–97. On Arendt, see Baehr, ‘Identifying the Unprecedented’.
Z. Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), pp. 177–78.; idem, Postmodern Ethics, pp. 249–50.
Z. Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), p. 16.
J. C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998).
Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust, p. 105. For a lucid discussion of the issue in general, see D. Bloxham, ‘Bureaucracy and Mass Murder: a Comparative Historical Analysis’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 22, 1 (2008).
D. Bloxham, The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
M. Levene, Genocide in the Age of the Nation State, 2 vols (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005)
R. Melson, Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992)
T. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
A. D. Moses, ‘Empire, Colony, Genocide’, in Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History, ed., A. D. Moses (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008); Freeman, ‘Genocide, Civilization and Modernity’.
E. R. Dickinson, ‘Biopolitics, Fascism, Democracy: Some Reflections on Our Discourse about “Modernity”’, Central European History, 37, 1 (2005), 1–48.
N. Rose, ‘The Politics of Life Itself’, Theory, Culture & Society, 18, 6 (2001), 1–30.
M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. R. Huxley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), pp. 137, 143.
A small sample: A. Bashford, Imperial Hygiene: A Critical History of Colonialism, Nationalism, and Public Health (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004)
W. Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990)
M. S. Quine, Population Politics in Twentieth-Century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal Democracies (London: Routledge, 1996)
D. G. Horn, Social Bodies: Science, Reproduction, and Italian Modernity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994)
C. Ipsen, Dictating Demography: The Problem of Population in Fascist Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
R. A. Soloway, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth Century Britain (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1990)
P. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazis, 1870–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
G. Eley, ‘Introduction 1: Is there a History of the Kaiserreich?’ in Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1870–1930, ed., G. Eley (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 1996), p. 28;
D. Padovan, ‘Biopolitics and the Social Control of the Multitude’, Democracy and Nature, 9, 3 (2003), 473–94.
S. T. Katz, ‘The Uniqueness of the Holocaust: The Historical Dimension’, in Is the Holocaust Unique? Perspectives on Comparative Genocide, ed., A. S. Rosenbaum (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996)
D. Diner, Beyond the Conceivable: Studies on Germany, Nazism, and the Holocaust (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000).
This literature also emphasizes fantasy and redemption in Nazism, or Nazism as a political religion. See A. Confino, ‘Fantasies about the Jews: Cultural Reflections on the Holocaust’, History and Memory, 17, 1–2 (2005), 296–322;M. Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001); see also his Sacred Causes: The Clash of Religion and Politics, from the Great War to the War on Terror (New York: HarperCollins, 2007).
F. Peace, ‘Introduction: The Collège de sociologie and French Social Thought’, Economy and Society, 32, 1 (2003), 1–6; M. Richman, ‘Myth, Power and the Sacred: Anti–Utilitarianism in the Collège de sociologie, 1937–9’, ibid., 29–47.
On Bataille and sacrifice, see J. Goldhammer, The Headless Republic: Sacrificial Violence in Modern French Thought (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), p. 11.
D. LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust: History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), pp. 92, 99–100
idem, History and Memory after Auschwtiz (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998).
D. LaCapra Writing History, Writing Trauma (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), p. 137.
L. Dawidowicz, ed., A Holocaust Reader (West Orange, NJ: Behrman House, 1976), p. 132. Emphasis added. I replace the word ‘integrity’ with ‘decency’, which is a better translation of antständig.
Cf. A. D. Moses, ‘Structure and Agency in the Holocaust: Daniel J. Goldhagen and his Critics’, History and Theory, 37, 2 (1998), 194–219.
P. K. Lawrence, ‘Enlightenment, Modernity and War’, History of the Human Sciences, 12, 1 (1999), 3–25.
A. Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’, Public Culture, 15, 1 (2003), 23–4. See Agamben’s discussion of Schmitt in Homer Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, trans D. Heller-Roazen (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), pp. 36–7.
E. Dussel, ‘Beyond Eurocentrism: The World-System and the Limits of Modernity’, in The Cultures of Globalization, eds, F. Jameson and M. Miyoshi (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1988), p. 19.
E. Dussel, The Invention of the Americas: Eclipse of ‘the Other’ and the Myth of Modernity, trans. M. D. Barber (New York: Continuum, 1995), p. 10.
E. Dussel, ‘Europe, Modernity, and Eurocentrism’, Nepantla: Views from South, 1, 3 (2000), 472.
On Las Casas and his idealization by Raphael Lemkin, see M. A. McDonnell and A. D. Moses, ‘Raphael Lemkin as Historian of Genocide in the Americas’, Journal of Genocide Research, 7, 4 (2005), 501–29.
E.g., M. Levene, ‘The Chittagong Hill Tracts: A Case Study in the Political Economy of “Creeping” Genocide’, Third World Quarterly, 20 (1999), 339–69
idem, ‘A Moving Target, the Usual Suspects and (Maybe) a Smoking Gun: The Problem of Pinning Blame in Modern Genocide’, Patterns of Prejudice, 33, 4 (1999), 3–24
idem, ‘The Limits of Tolerance: Nation-State Building and What It Means for Minority Groups’, Patterns of Prejudice, 34, 2 (2000), 19–40
idem, ‘Why is the Twentieth Century the Century of Genocide?’, Journal of World History, 11 (2000), 305–36.
M. Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 79.
H. Rae, State Identities and the Homogenisation of Peoples (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002)
H. Maier, ‘Potentials for Violence in the Nineteenth Century: Technology of War, Colonialism, and the “People in Arms”’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 2, 1 (2001), 1–27.
E. D. Weitz, A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race and Nation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003)
N. Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).
D. Diner, ‘Hannah Arendt Reconsidered: On the Banal and the Evil in Her Holocaust Narrative’, New German Critique, 71 (1997), 179. The second quotation by Diner is in T. Assheuer, ‘Die Wiederkehr der Schuldfrage?’, Frankfurter Rundschau, 10 May 1996. His critique of Aly and Heim is in his Beyond the Conceivable, pp. 187–200.
G. Aly, Hitlers Volksstaat: Raub, Rassenkrieg und nationaler Sozialismus (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Verlag, 2005), p. 362: ‘Wer von den Vorteilen fuer die Millionen einfacher Deutscher nicht reden will, der sollte vom Nationalsozialismus und vom Holocaust schweigen’. The Horkheimer quotation is: ‘He who does not wish to speak of capitalism should also be silent about fascism’. See Jay, ‘The Jews and the Frankfurt School’, 138 for discussion of Horkheimer’s ‘Die Juden und Europa’.
For example, M. Wildt, ‘Alys Volksstaat. Hybris und Simplizität einer Wissenschaft’, Mittelweg, 36, 3 (2005).
T. Snyder, ‘The Causes of Ukraine-Polish Ethnic Cleansing, 1943’, Past and Present, 179 (2003), 197–234
M. Hogan, ‘The 1948 Massacre at Deir Yassin Revisited’, Historian, 63, 2 (2001), 309–33.
For one notorious episode, see D. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: Britain’s Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 2004)
C. Elkins, Britain’s Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya (London: Pimlico, 2004).
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Moses, A.D. (2008). Genocide and Modernity. In: Stone, D. (eds) The Historiography of Genocide. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230297784_7
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