Abstract
Indigenous peoples have been characterized as ‘victims of progress’,1 ‘invisible indigenes’,2 ‘resource rebels’,3 and ‘First Nations who are organizing to survive’.4 Most, if not all peoples, who consider themselves to be indigenous or aboriginal have histories that include complex kinds of contacts with other peoples, some of which were negative. All too often, indigenous peoples have had to cope with efforts by other groups, governments, settlers, or transnational corporations to take away their lands and resources, sometimes by force or through the application of questionable means. As David Maybury-Lewis5 notes, ‘Indigenous peoples are those who are subordinated and marginalized by those who rule over them.’ Patrick Brantlinger points out that the advent of Europeans in Australia, New Zealand, southern Africa, Latin America, and North America ‘meant steep population declines in indigenous populations’. He goes on to say, ‘One of the main causes for these declines is not mysterious: violence, warfare, genocide.’6
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Notes
See J. H. Bodley, Victims of Progress, 4th edn. (Mountain View, CA and London: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1999).
B. G. Miller, Invisible Indigenes: The Politics of Non-Recognition (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 2003).
A. Gedicks, Resource Rebels: Native Challenges to Mining and Oil Corporations (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2001).
D. Maybury-Lewis, ‘Genocide Against Indigenous Peoples’, in Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide, ed. A. L. Hinton (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002), p. 43.
P. Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800–1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), p. 2.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, IWGIA Yearbook 1987: Indigenous Peoples and Development (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1988), p. 1.
For discussions of definitions of the concept ‘indigenous peoples’, see J. R. Martinez-Cobo, Study of the Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations: Volume V: Conclusions, Proposals, and Recommendations (New York, United Nations, 1985), p. 48;
Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues, Indigenous Peoples: A global Quest for Justice (London: Zed Books, 1987), pp. 5–13;
J. Burger, Report from the Frontier: The State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples (London: Zed Books and Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, Inc:, 1990), pp. 5–12;
World Bank, ‘Indigenous Peoples’, in The World Bank Operational Manual: Operational Policies 4.10 (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2005);
M. Stewart-Harawira, The New Imperial Order: Indigenous Reponses to Globalization (London: Zed Books, 2005);
N. G. Postero, Now We Are Citizens: Indigenous Politics in Postmulticultural Bolivia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007); see especially pp. 3, 10, 11–13, 50, 84–6.
See D. Maybury-Lewis, Indigenous Peoples, Ethnic Groups, and the State (Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1997), pp. x, 7–12, 54–6;
K. Coates, A Global History of Indigenous Peoples: Struggle and Survival (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 1–15;
R. Niezen, The Origins of Indigenism: Human Rights and the Politics of Identity (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004), pp. 2–15, 18–23.
See R. Bhengra, ‘Indigenous Peoples’ Juridical Rights and Their Relation to the State in India’, in Vines That Won’t Bind: Indigenous Peoples in Asia, ed. C. Erni (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1996), pp. 119–50;
R. Bhengra, C. R. Bijoy, and S. Luithui, The Adivasis of India (London: Minority Rights Group International, 1998);
S. Venkateswar, Development and Ethnocide: Colonial Practices in the Andaman Islands (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2004).
F. Wilmer, The Indigenous Voice in World Politics: Since Time Immemorial (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1993);
B. R. Howard, Indigenous Peoples and the State: The Struggle for Native Rights (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003).
For a copy of this Convention, see S. J. Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 193–204.
See E. Darian-Smith, New Capitalists: Law, Politics, and Identity Surrounding Casino Gaming on Native American Land (Belmont, CA: Thompson/Wadsworth, 2004).
See T. R. Gurr, Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute for Peace Press, 1993);
T. R. Gurr, Peoples Versus States: Minorities at Risk in the New Century (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute for Peace Press, 2000), pp. 45–7.
For an enlightening discussion of this complex issue, see E. Barkan: ‘Genocides of Indigenous Peoples: Rhetoric of Human Rights’, in The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective, eds, R. Gellately and B. Kiernan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 117–39.
Some of the works he addresses include K. Sale, The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991);
D. E. Stannard, American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992);
G. E. Tinker, Missionary Conquest: The Gospel and Native American Genocide (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1993).
See H. Drechsler, Let Us Die Fighting: The Struggle of the Herero and the Nama Against German Imperialism (London: Zed Press, 1980);
J. Bridgman, The Revolt of the Hereros (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1981);
K. Poewe, The Namibian Herero: A History of Their Psychosocial Disintegration and Survival (Lewiston, NY: The Edward Mellen Press, 1985);
A. Palmer, Colonial Genocide (Adelaide: Crawford House Publishers, 2000);
B. Neitschmann, ‘The Third World War’, Cultural Survival Quarterly, 11, 3 (1987), 1–16.
See, for example, reports by Amnesty International, Anti-Slavery International, Human Rights Watch, the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, Survival International, and the Minority Rights Group. Examples include Center for World Indigenous Studies, International Tribunal on Genocide in Central America (Kenmore, WA: Center for World Indigenous Studies, 1986; http://www.cwis.org/fwdp/americas/itcaplan,txt);
Amnesty International, Human Rights Violations Against Indigenous Peoples of the Americas (New York: Amnesty International, 1992);
Minority Rights Group International, World Directly of Minorities (London: Minority Rights Group International, 1997);
J. Hamilton-Merritt, Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret Wars for Laos, 1942–1992 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992).
For a discussion of the impacts of multinational corporations on indigenous peoples, see A. Gedicks, The New Resource Wars: Native and Environmental Struggles against Multinational Corporations (Boston, MA: South End Press, 2001).
L. Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 31, 41;
A. Palmer, ‘Ethnocide’, in Genocide in Our Time, eds, M. N. Dobkowski and I. Wallimann (Ann Arbor, MI: Pierian Press, 1992), p. 1;
R. K. Hitchcock and T. Twedt, ‘Physical and Cultural Genocide of Various Indigenous Peoples’, in Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views, eds, S. Totten, W. S. Parsons, and I. Charny (New York: Garland Publishing, 1997), p. 373;
R. Weyler, Blood of the Land: The U.S. Government and the Corporate War against the American Indian Movement, 2nd edn (Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers, 1992).
T. Johnson, J. Nagel, and D. Champagne, eds, American Indian Activism: Alcatraz to the Longest Walk (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1997).
N. Lewis, ‘Genocide — From Fire and Sword to Arsenic and Bullets: Civilization Has Sent Six Million Indians to Extinction’, Sunday Times Magazine (London) (23 February 1969).
For additional discussion of these matters with relation to Central America, see Center for World Indigenous Studies, International Tribunal on Genocide in Central America (Kenmore, WA: Center for World Indigenous Studies, 1986).
For a discussion of the reactions of anthropologists to counterinsurgency operations carried out by the U.S. government in Thailand in the 1960s, see E. Wakin, Anthropology Goes to War: Professional Ethics and Counterinsurgency in Thailand (Madison, WI: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1992).
See G. B. Kolata, ‘!Kung Bushmen Join South African Army’, Science, 211 (1981), 562–4.
S. Souindola, ‘Angola: Genocide of the Bosquimanos’, IWGIA Newsletter, 31–2 (1981), 66–8.
See, for example, I. L. Horowitz, Taking Lives: Genocide and State Power (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1980);
I. W. Charny, How Can We Commit the Unthinkable? Genocide, the Human Cancer (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982);
L. Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985);
E. Staub, The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989);
A. Neier, War Crimes: Brutality, Genocide, Terror, and the Struggle for Justice (New York: Times Books, 1998);
I. W. Charny, ed., Encyclopedia of Genocide, Volumes I and II (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1999).
H. Fein, ‘Genocide: A Sociological Perspective’, Current Sociology, 38, 1 (1990), 24.
See, for example, L. A. Stiffarm with P. Lane Jr., ‘The Demography of Native North America: A Question of American Indian Survival’, in The State of Native America: Genocide, Colonization, and Resistance, ed. M. A. Jaimes (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1992), pp. 30–4.
Such statements were made in interviews of indigenous peoples’ organizations spokespersons at meetings of Khoi and San peoples in southern Africa in 1997 and 2003 and at international meetings on indigenous peoples in Africa. People concerned with the well-being of the San have also asked whether what is happening to the San in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve of Botswana, who, along with another group, the Bakgalagadi, were relocated out of the game reserve by the government of Botswana in 1997 and 2002. See, for example, M. Levine, ‘Can Botswana Be Charged with Genocide?’ Mmegi Wa Dikgang, 4–10 October 2002; P Kenyon, ‘Row over Bushmen “Genocide,”’ http://news.bbc.co.yk/go/pr/fr//2/hi/programmes/crossing_continents/4404816.stm 2005/11006. The BBC Radio 4’s Crossing Continents program was broadcast on Thursday, 10 November 2004.
See, for example, D. Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928 (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1995);
A. D. Moses, ed., Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004).
See Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Bringing Them Home: Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Children (Sydney: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 1997);
V. Haskins and M. D. Jacobs, ‘Stolen Generations and Vanishing Indians: The Removals of Indigenous Children as a Weapon of War in the United States and Australia’, In ed. J. Merten, Children and War: A Historical Anthology (New York: New York University Press, 2002), pp. 227–41;
M. D. Jacobs, ‘Maternal Colonialism: White Women and Indigenous Child Removal in the American West and Australia 1880–1940’, Western Historical Quarterly 36, 1 (2005) 453–76;
K. Ellinghaus, ‘Indigenous Assimilation and Absorption in the United States and Australia,’ Pacific Historical Review 75, 4 (2006) 563–85.
See P. Sampas, ‘Last Words’, WorldWatch (May–June 2001), 34–40;
M. Krauss, ‘The World’s Languages in Crisis’, and K. Hale, ‘On Endangered Languages and the Safeguarding of Diversity’, Language, 68, 1 (1992), 1–3, 6;
D. Nettle and S. Romaine, Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World’s Languages (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000);
T. Skutnabb-Kangas, Linguistic Genocide in Education — or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights? (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000).
See I. E. Daes, A Study on the Protection of the Cultural and Intellectual Property (Heritage) of Indigenous Peoples (New York: United Nations, 1996);
D. A. Posey and G. Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property: Toward Traditional Rights for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (Ottawa: International Development Research Center, 1996);
M. A. Bengwayan, Intellectual and Cultural Property Rights of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Asia (London: Minority Rights Group International, 2003).
See Bodley, Victims of Progress, pp. 145–69; Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues, Indigenous Peoples: A Global Quest for Justice (London: Zed Press, 1987).
See, for example, R. Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987);
F. Chalk and K. Jonassohn, The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990);
Hitchcock and Twedt, ‘Physical and Cultural Genocide’; C. Tatz, With Intent to Destroy: Reflecting on Genocide (London: Verso, 2003), pp. 67–106;
W. Churchill, A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas, 1492 to the Present (San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books, 1997);
E. Barkan, The Guilt of Nations: Restitution and Negotiating Historical Injustices (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2000);
E.-I. A. Daes, ‘Indigenous Peoples’, in Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity, ed. D. L. Shelton (Detroit, MI and New York: Thomson-Gale, 2005), pp. 508–16;
M. Lavene, Genocide in the Age of the Nation State, Volume 2: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005).
Refugees International, ‘Forgotten Peoples: The Batwa “Pygmy” of the Great Lakes Region of Africa’, http://www.refugeessinternational.org/content/article/detail/892. 12 August 2003.
See D. Bergner, ‘The Most Unconventional Weapon’, The New York Times Magazine (28 October 2003), 48–53; http://www.hrw.org.
Survival International, ‘Rio Pardo. Brazil: Uncontacted Tribe Faces Genocide’, Urgent Action Bulletin, June 2005 (London: Survival International, 2005).
S. Davis, Victims of the Miracle: Development and the Indians of Brazil (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 5.
See G. Grumberg, ‘Why are the Guarani Kaiowa Killing Themselves?’, IWGIA Newsletter, 91, 2 (1991), 21–4; and the Urgent Action Bulletins of Survival International produced in the 1980s through to the present (London: Survival International, http://www.survival.org).
G. Colby with C. Dennett, Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and the Age of Oil (New York: HarperPerennial, 1976).
M. Edelman, ‘Nelson Rockefeller and Latin America’, Anthropology Newsletter, 38, 2 (1997), 36–7; Thomas Headland, Summer Institute of Linguistics, personal communications, 2003, 2005.
V. Montejo, Testimony: Death of a Guatemalan Village (Willimantic, CT: Curbstone Press, 1987).
For a discussion of the Guatemala case, see Victoria Sanford in this volume. See also R. Falla, ‘We Charge Genocide’, In Guatemala: Tyranny on Trial: Testimony of the Permanent People’s Tribunal (San Francisco, CA: Synthesis Publications, 1984), pp. 112–19;
R. Falla, Massacres in the Jungle: Ixcan, Guatemala, 1975–1982 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994);
B. Manz, Refugees of a Hidden War: The Aftermath of Counterinsurgency in Guatemala (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1988);
R. Carmack, Harvest of Violence: The Mayan Indians and the Guatemalan Crisis (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988);
C. S. Smith, ed., Guatemalan Indians and the State, 1540 to 1988 (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1990);
D. Stoll, Between Two Armies in the Ixil Towns of Guatemala (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993);
K. B. Warren, Indigenous Movements and Their Critics: Pan-Maya Activism in Guatemala (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998);
J. Colajmoco, ‘The Chixoy Dam: The Aya Achi Genocide: The Story of Forced Resettlement’, in Dams, Indigenous Peoples, and Ethnic Minorities, ed., M. Colchester (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1999);
V. Sanford, Buried Secrets: Truth and Human Rights in Guatemala (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
Cf. R. Menchu, I, Rigoberta Menchu, an Indian Woman of Guatemala, ed., E. Burgos-Debray, trans. by A. Wright (London: Verso, 1984);
D. Stoll, Rigoberta Menchu and the Story of All Poor Guatemalans (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999).
For an excellent discussion of the importance of first person testimony in genocide and human rights cases, see S. Totten, First-Person Accounts of Genocidal Acts Committed in the Twentieth Century: An Annotated Bibliography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1991), pp. xxv–xliii;
See A. Arias, ed., The Rigoberta Menchu Controversy (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2001);
H. Cohen, ‘The Unmaking of Rigoberta Menchu’, in Genocide, Collective Violence, and Popular Memory: The Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century, eds, D. E. Lorey and W. H Beezley, eds, (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Books, 2002), pp. 53–64.
See M. Munzel, The Ache Indians: Genocide in Paraguay (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1973);
R. Arens, ed., Genocide in Paraguay (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1976).
M. Munzel, The Ache: Genocide Continues in Paraguay (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1974);
M. Chase Sardi, ‘The Present Situation of the Indians in Paraguay’, in The Situation of the Indian in South America: Contributions to the Study of Inter-Ethnic Conflict in the Non-Andean Regions of South America, ed. W. Dostal (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1972).
K. Hill and A. Hurtado, Ache Life History: The Ecology and Demography of a Foraging People (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995).
See Survival International, The Denial of Genocide (London: Survival International, 1993).
D. Maybury-Lewis and J. Howe, The Indian Peoples of Paraguay: Their Plight and Their Prospects. Cultural Survival Special Reports No. 2. (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival Inc. 1980).
R. J. Smith and B. Melia, Genocide of the Ache-Guayaki? (London: Survival International, 1978).
See J. Bonwick, The Last of the Tasmanians, or The Black War of Van Diemen’s Land (London: Sampson Low, 1870);
C. Turnbull, Black War: The Extermination of the Tasmanian Aborigines (Melbourne: Cheshire-Lansdowne, 1948);
J. P. Synott, ‘Genocide and Cover-up Practices of the British Colonial System against Australian Aborigines, 1788–1992’, Internet on the Holocaust and Genocide, 44–6 (1993), 15–16;
J. J. Cove, What the Bones Say: Tasmanian Aborigines, Science, and Domination (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1995); Crocker, Rivers of Blood, Rivers of Gold, especially pp. 115–94;
C. Tatz, Genocide in Australia (Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, 1999);
A. Palmer, Colonial Genocide (Adelaide: Crawford House, 2000);
H. Reynolds, An Indelible Stain? The Question of Genocide in Australia’s History (Melbourne: Viking Australia, 2001);
A. D. Moses, ed., Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004).
J. Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), p. 320.
See H. Reynolds, The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia (Victoria: Penguin Australia, 1982);
H. Reynolds, Why Weren’t We Told A Personal Search for the Truth About Our History? (Victoria: Penguin Australia, 1999);
A. D. Moses, ‘An Antipodean Genocide? The Origins of the Genocidal Moment in the Colonization of Australia’, Journal of Genocide Research, 2, 1 (2000), 89–106;
C. Tatz, ‘Confronting Australian Genocide’, Aboriginal History 25 (2001), 1–14;
B. Kiernan, ‘Australia’s Aboriginal Genocide’, Yale Journal of Human Rights, 1, 1 (2001), 49–56;
A. R. Sousa, ‘“They Will be Hunted Down Like Wild Beasts and Destroyed!” A Comparative Study of Genocide in California and Tasmania’, Journal of Genocide Research, 6, 2 (2004), 193–209;
A. Curthoys, ‘Raphael Lemkin’s “Tasmania”: An Introduction’, Patterns of Prejudice, 39, 2 (2005), 168–75.
See K. Windschuttle, The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen’s Land 1803–1847 (Paddington: Macleay Press, 2002). H. Dailey, ‘Fabricating Aboriginal History,’ http://Sunday.ninemsn.com.au/Sunday/cover_stories/article-1286.asp;
R. Manne, Whitewash: On Keith Windschuttle’s Fabrication of Aboriginal History (Melbourne: Black, 2003);
P. Brantlinger, ‘“Black Armband” versus “White Blindfold” History in Australia’, Victorian Studies, 46, 4 (2004), pp. 655–74.
N. J. B. Pomley, The Aboriginal/Settler Clash in Van Diemen’s Land, 1803–1831 (Hobart: University of Tasmania, 1992), pp. 10, 20.
L. Ryan, The Aboriginal Tasmanians, 2nd edn (St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin, 1996), p. 83.
N. J. B. Plomley, An Immigrant of 1824 (Hobart: Tasmanian Historical Research Association, 1973), p. 2.
N. J. B. Plomley, ed., Weep in Silence: A History of the Flinders Island Aboriginal Settlement with the Flinders Island Journal of George Augustus Robinson (Hobart: Blubber Head Press, 1987);
N. J. B. Plomley, Friendly Mission: The Tasmanian Journals and Papers of George Augustus Robinson: 1829–1834 (Kingsgrove: Halstead Press, 1966).
A. Curthoys, ‘Genocide in Tasmania: The History of an Idea’, in Empire, Colony, Genocide, ed. A. D. Moses (New York: Berghahn, 2008), for example, questions the conventional wisdom about Tasmanian genocide; see also Tony Barta’s chapter in this volume.
For excellent discussions of this highly contentious debate, see G. D. Rosenfeld, ‘The Politics of Uniqueness: Reflections on the Recent Polemical Term in Holocaust and Genocide Scholarship’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 13, 1 (1999), 28–61;
A. Rensink, ‘Native American History, the Holocaust, and Comparative Genocide: Historiography, Debate, and Critical Analysis’ (M.A. Thesis, Department of History, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2006).
For an example, see V. Dadrian, ‘The Convergent Aspects of the Armenian and Jewish Cases of Genocide: A Reintepretation of the Concept of the Holocaust’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 3, 2 (1998), 151–69.
See, for example, S. T. Katz, The Holocaust in Historical Context, Volume I: The Holocaust and Mass Death Before the Modern Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992);
D. Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory (New York: Free Press, 1993);
D. J. Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996).
See, for example, G. Grau, Hidden Holocaust? Gay and Lesbian Persecution in Germany, 1933–1945 (Chicago, IL: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1995);
I. Chang, The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust (New York: Basic Books, 1997).
See, for example, Y. Bauer, The Holocaust in Historical Perspective (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1978), especially pp. 30–49.
A. Rosenbaum, ed., Is the Holocaust Unique: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996). See especially the article by D. Stannard, ‘Uniqueness as Denial: The Politics of Genocide Scholarship’, pp. 163–208.
N. Finkelstein and R. B. Birn, A Nation on Trial: The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth (New York: Metropolitan, 1998).
S. Hoig, The Sand Creek Massacre (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961);
D. Green and D. Scott, Finding Sand Creek (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004);
See the reports of Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, African Rights, Asia Watch, Minority Rights Group, Survival International, Cultural Survival, and the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. For a specific example of the way in which one indigenous group, the Karen, who number 6 million in Burma and 400,000 in Thailand, has been treated by the Burmese government and military, see the Jubilee Campaign, ‘Genocide Against the Karen People in Burma’, http://www.jubileecampaign.co.uk/world/bnrs.htm (1998); B. Rogers, A Land Without Evil: Stopping the Genocide of Burma’s Karen (Oxford: Monarch Books, 2004).
See I. Sutton, ed., Irredeemable America: The Indians’ Estate and Land Claims (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1985);
J. Nagel, American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Red Power and the Resurgence of Identity and Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, The Naga Nation and Its Struggle Against Genocide (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1986).
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, Genocide in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh … They Are Now Burning Village After Village (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1984);
W. Mey, ed., Genocide in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. IWGIA Document No. 51 (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1984);
A. H. Chowdhury ‘Self-Determination, the Chittagong, and Bangladesh’, in Human Rights and Environment: International Views, ed. D. P. Forsythe (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), pp. 292–301;
Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission, ‘Life is not Ours’: Land and Human Rights in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: The Report of the Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission 1991. (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1991);
Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission, ‘Life is Not Ours’: Land and Human Rights in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. An Update of the May 1991 Report (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1991);
Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission (2000), ‘Life is Not Ours’: Land and Human Rights in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: Update 4 (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2000);
R. C. Roy, Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2000);
I. Hume and S. Drong, ‘Bangaldesh’, In ed. S. Stidsen, The Indigenous World 2006 (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2006), 364–73. See also the website of Vanishing Rites, http://www.vanishingrites.com.
J. Heffernan and D. Tuller, ‘Ending the Genocide in Darfur’, San Francisco Chronicle (12 February 2006).
For a discussion of the concept of genocide in Darfur, see S. Straus, ‘Darfur and the Genocide Debate’, Foreign Affairs, 84, 1 (2005), 123–33.
Physicians for Human Rights, Assault on Survival (Boston, MA: Physicians for Human Rights, 2005).
Estimates of the deaths vary considerably, in part, because of the difficulty of conducting surveys in a war-torn region and because of the assumptions made by organizations and individuals attempting to come up with numbers of people who were killed or died, J. Hagan and A. Palloni, ‘Death in Darfur’, Science 313 (2006) 1578–9.
See also U.S. Department of State, Sudan: Death Toll in Darfur (Fact Sheet, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, Washington, D.C., March 2005).
For information on the Darfur situation, see the website of the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (http://www.unhcr.org/english/docs/darfurreport.doc) and Justice Africa (http://www.justiceafrica.org). See also U.S. Department of State, Documenting Atrocities in Darfur. State Department Publication 111882, 9 September 2004 (Washington, D.C.: Department of State, 2004);
J. Apsel, ed., Darfur: Genocide before Our Eyes. (New York: Institute for the Study of Genocide, 2005);
G. Prunier, Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995);
J. Flint and A. De Waal, Darfur: A Short History of a Long War (London: Zed Books, 2005).
See A. Schwarz, A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia’s Search for Stability (London: Allen and Unwin, 1999);
M. Kooistra, Indonesia: Regional Conflicts and State Terror (London: Minority Rights Group International, 2001).
C. Erni, ‘West Papua’, In ed. S. Stidsen, The Indigenous World 2006 (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2006) 265–72; C. Erni, personal communication, 2006.
D. Hyndman, Ancestral Rain Forests and the Mountain of Gold: Indigenous Peoples and Mining in New Guinea (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994).
R. K. Hitchcock, ‘Indigenous Peoples, Multinational Corporations, and Human Rights’, Indigenous Affairs, 2 (1997), 6–11; Gedicks, Resource Rebels; S. Totten, W. S. Parsons, and R. K. Hitchcock, ‘Confronting Genocide and Ethnocide of Indigenous Peoples: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Definition, Intervention, Prevention, and Advocacy’, in Annihilating Difference, ed. Hinton, pp. 71–4;
L. Girion, ‘1789 Law Acquires Human Rights Role’, Los Angeles Times (16 June 2003), A1, A12.
N. P. Higgins, Understanding the Chiapas Rebellion: Modernist Visions and the Invisible Indian (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1994).
For a draft of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, see S. J. Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 190–3.
See S. Power, “A Problem from Hell”: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002) and discussions on the failure of the international community to intervene in the April–July 1994 genocide in Rwanda.
G. Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995);
A. Des Forges, Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1999). A similar reluctance to intervene in the situation in Bosnia by the international community saw the mass killings of some 7,000 Bosnian Muslim men and boys in the so-called United Nations’ safe haven of Srebrenica in July 1995;
L. Silber and A. Little, Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation (London: Penguin, 1997), pp. 345–53.
See P. Willey, Prehistoric Warfare in the Great Plains (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990);
S. Krech III, ‘Genocide in Tribal Society’, Nature 371 (1994), 14–15;
L. H. Keeley, War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
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© 2008 Robert K. Hitchcock and Thomas E. Koperski
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Hitchcock, R.K., Koperski, T.E. (2008). Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. In: Stone, D. (eds) The Historiography of Genocide. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230297784_23
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