Abstract
On 7 December 1941 the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. The following day Britain and the United States declared war against Japan. Three days later Hitler and Mussolini announced hostilities against the United States. The European conflict had been transformed into a wider struggle between the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo ‘Axis’ and the Anglo-American-Russian ‘Grand Alliance’, which dominated the disparate group of states that Roosevelt somewhat optimistically called the ‘United Nations’. But the ‘world war’ remained the sum of distinct, yet interrelated, conflicts fought out simultaneously in Europe, North Africa, Asia and the Pacific, and the concomitant requirements of often competing, often poorly coordinated, theatres of war checked the coherence of Allied strategy from the outset.
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Notes and References
McMullin, Light on the Hill, p. 215.
Nicolson diary entry, 30 March 1942, Nicolson (ed.), Harold Nicolson, p. 207.
Cross to Cranborne, 9 January 1942, PRO: PREM 4/50/7A.
Cox to Secretary of State, 24 December 1941, USNA: RG59, 740.0011, PACIFIC WAR/1811.
Batterbee to Luke, 16 January 1942, RHL: Batterbee papers, 6/7.
Machtig to Batterbee, 5 January 1942, ibid., 10/1.
Horner, High Command, pp. 146–147.
Ibid., p. 152.
Wood, New Zealand People at War, p. 218.
Batterbee to Liesching, 30 December 1941, RHL: Batterbee papers, 6/6.
Wood, New Zealand People at War, p. 218.
Templeton (ed.), An Eye, An Ear and A Voice, p. 23.
Day, Great Betrayal, p. 301.
Hasluck, The Government and the People, 1942–45, p. 129.
Spector, Eagle Against the Sun, pp. 141–143.
Evatt to Curtin, 29 March 1942, doc.446, DAFP, vol.5, pp. 687–688.
Cross to DO, 30 March 1942, PRO: PREM4 50/6.
Minute by Churchill, n.d., ibid.
Evatt to Casey, 7 January 1942, doc.260, DAFP, vol. 5, pp. 420–421.
Casey to ADEA, 30 January, 1942, doc.312, DAFP, vol. 5, p. 488.
Freyberg to Batterbee, 31 January 1942, RHL: Batterbee papers, 8/2.
Batterbee to Cross, 15 June 1942, ibid., 6/3.
Batterbee to MacDonald, 28 July 1942, ibid., 7/1.
White House note, 23 February 1942, FDRL: Roosevelt papers, OF 48-F-NZ, box 11; Bridge, ‘Poland to Pearl Harbor’, p. 49.
Memorandum by Hull, 24 April 1942, USNA: RG59, 711.47/86.
Memorandum by SSDA, ‘Lend-Lease Agreement’, 21 January 1942, PRO: CAB66/21.
Dalton to BoT, 27 April 1942, PRO: BT11/1397.
War Cabinet submission by Evatt and Chifley, 10 February 1942, doc. 324, DAFP vol. 5, pp. 504–509.
Memorandum by SSDA, ‘Lend-Lease Agreement’, 21 January 1942, op. cit.
See correspondence in NZNA: EA2 1944/4b (part lb) and NAA: A981 AVI 36 (part 3).
NZPM to APM, 29 December 1941, NZNA: EA2 1944/4b (part lb).
Hudson Fysh, Qantas at War (Sydney, 1968), p. 128; memorandum for the NZ Minister of Defence, 23 July 1942, NZNA: EA2 1944/4b (part lb); Cox to Sullivan, 14 August 1942, ibid.
Gunn, Challenging Horizons, p. 45.
Ibid., p. 74.
Henrikson, ‘The Map as an “Idea”’, pp. 21–22.
Ibid., pp. 19–53; Sherry, Preparing for the Next War, pp. 201, 204, 229.
Johnson to Minter, 5 March 1942, LC: Johnson papers, box 66.
Batterbee to Cranborne, 22 July 1942, RHL: Batterbee papers, 6/1.
Webster to Toynbee, 8 April 1942, BLPES: Webster papers, 1/22/179.
Clarke to Eden, 11 June 1942, PRO: F0461/1.
Cross to DO, 5 February 1942, PRO: PREM4 50/7A; Cross to DO, 29 March 1942, PRO: PREM4 50/6.
Cross to Batterbee, 3 February 1942, RHL: Batterbee papers, 6/3.
Cross to Batterbee, 10 June 1942, ibid.
Batterbee to Shannon, 23 November 1942, ibid., 8/5.
Cross to Batterbee, 11 September 1942, ibid., 6/3.
Hasluck, The Government and the People, 1942–45, p. 168.
Bell, Unequal Allies, p. 50; Sydney Morning Herald, 14 January 1942.
Hurley to Secretary of State, 10 April 1942, USNA: RG59, 740.0011 P.W./2307; King to the President, 5 April 1942, FDRL: MRF, Naval Aide, box 168; Marshall to Roosevelt, 24 March 1942, FDRL: PSF, Marshall, box 3; Curtin to Evatt, 29 March 1942, doc.445, DAFP, vol. 5, pp. 685–686.
Nash to Fraser, 4 May 1942, NZNA: EA1 63/3/7 (part la).
Memorandum by Dykes, 31 August 1942, PRO: CAB122/115.
Collier, The Lion and the Eagle, p. 376.
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Cox to Secretary of State, 9 December 1942, USNA: RG59, 033.47H11/63 GS/ EP.
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Defence Committee (Operations) minutes, 21 January 1942, PRO: CAB69/4.
CCS minutes, 24 March 1942, PRO: CAB88/1.
Overy, Why the Allies Won, p. 34; Bell, Unequal Allies, p. 79.
Stoler, ‘The “Pacific-First” Alternative’.
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Spykman, America’s Strategy in World Politics, p. 131.
The New York Times, 30 March 1942.
Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, p. 338.
Eisenhower to Chief of Staff, 28 February 1942, doc. 162, Chandler et al. (eds), Eisenhower Papers, vol. 1, pp. 149–155.
Ibid., n.2, p. 15; Stoler, ‘The “Pacific-First” Alternative’.
Nash’s speech to Foreign Policy Association, Boston, Mass., 17 October 1942, NZNA: EA2 1945/17b.
Cox to Secretary of State, 24 August 1942, USNA: RG59, 847H.24/44.
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Batterbee to Machtig, 22 February 1942, RHL: Batterbee papers, 7/2.
UKHCNZ to DO, 18 November 1942, PRO: PREM3 63/10.
UKHCNZ to DO, 10 December 1942, ibid.
Rowan to the President, 23 May 1943, FDRL: PSF, diplomatic correspondence, New Zealand, box 45.
Shedden to Curtin, 26 May 1943, doc.198, DAFP, vol. 6, p. 378.
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Mcintosh to Berendsen, 23 June 1943, McGibbon (ed.), Undiplomatic Dialogue, p. 31.
Cox to Secretary of State, 24 August 1942, op. cit.; Batterbee to Stephenson, 25 August 1942, RHL: Batterbee papers, 7/14.
Batterbee diary entry, 5 May 1943, ibid., 4/2.
Batterbee to SSDA, 23 September 1942, op. cit.
Reynolds, ‘H. V. Evatt’, pp. 158–169; Bell, Unequal Allies, p. 45. Cf. Bridge, ‘R. G. Casey’, p. 187.
Halifax to Churchill, 24 March 1942, PRO: F0954/29/397.
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Horner, High Command, p. 201.
Attlee to Churchill, 25 March 1943, PRO: DO121/10B.
CPD, vol.172, 11 December 1942, p. 1821.
Statement on security, 19 April 1943, NAA: A989 44/735/168/9-1.
CCS minutes, 20 November 1942, PRO: CAB88/1.
CCS minutes, 22 January 1943, PRO: CAB88/2.
Stoler, The “Pacific-First” Alternative’, p. 447.
Ibid., pp. 444–449.
Kennedy, Rise and Fall, pp. 456–458.
Calvocoressi et al., Total War, vol. 2, p. 500.
Kennedy, Rise and Fall, p. 447.
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Marshall to Roosevelt, 25 May 1943, FDRL: PSF, diplomatic correspondence, Australia, box 23.
Horner, High Command, pp. 260–261; Bell, Unequal Allies, p. 84.
MacArthur to Curtin, 13 May 1943, doc. 189, DAFP, vol. 6, p. 367.
Holmes to Machtig, 5 June 1943, PRO: CAB122/630.
Evatt to Curtin, 28 August 1943, NAA: A5954/231; Day, Reluctant Nation, pp. 131–135.
Memorandum by Maitland, The U.S. War Effort in the South and Southwest Pacific’ [April 1943], PRO: PREM3/476/4.
Memorandum by Berle of conversation with Langstone, 27 December 1941, FDRL: Berle papers, box 213.
Dobson, Peaceful Air Warfare, p. 129.
Coates to Fraser, ‘Air Transport — concerning New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji, Tonga, and Aitutaki’, 1 December 1942, NZNA: EA1 110/3/7 (part 1).
Note by Fysh of interview with Frank Learman of Consolidated Aircraft Corporation, 3 March 1943, PRO: AVIA2/2451.
Gunn, Challenging Horizons, p. 46.
Coates to Fraser, ‘Air Communications in the Pacific’, 7 April 1943, NZNA: • EA1 110/3/7 (part 1).
Ibid.
Stephenson to Hildred, 29 April 1943, PRO: AVIA2/2451.
Coates to Fraser, ‘Air Communications in the Pacific’, 7 April 1943, op. cit.
Note by Fysh of interview with Frank Learman of Consolidated Aircraft Corporation, 3 March 1943, op. cit.
Memorandum by Gore-Booth, n.d., PRO: F0461/2 (part 6).
Australian military representative, Washington, to Coleridge, 8 April 1942, PRO: CAB122/131.
HCD, vol. 385, 17 December 1942.
Home to Paul, 5 February 1943, USNA: RG80, (SC) EE/10.
Dalton to Department of Overseas Trade, 2 March 1943, PRO: BT11/2090.
Halifax to FO, 11 December 1942, PRO: CAB122/131.
AG to SSDA/NZG, 15 May 1943, NAA: A2939/1 165; DO to A/NZG, 10 July 1943, ibid.
Sherry, Preparing for the Next War, p. 4.
SSDA to NZPM, 24 March 1943, NZNA: EA1 110/3/10.
Johnson to Hornbeck, 12 January 1943, LC: Johnson papers, box 66.
Johnson to White, 8 April 1943, ibid., box 43.
Memorandum, ‘American comment on post-war bases in the Pacific and the Australian-New Zealand Agreement’, n.d., NAA: A5954/1 654/14.
Australian Legation, Washington, to APMD, 2 April 1943, NAA: A5954 652/ 1.
Chargé d’Affaires, New Zealand Legation, Washington, to Fraser, 31 March 1943, doc. 32, in DNZER, vol. 1, pp. 41–43.
Nash pointed the finger at the influx into Western Samoa of American troops. Draft memorandum by Nash, April 1943, NZNA: EA2 1945/6a.
SSDA to UKHCNZ, 24 March 1943, NZNA: EA2 1945/6a.
Shanahan to Chief of the General Staff, 29 March 1943, ibid.
NZCOS report, ‘Mutual Use of Airfields After the War’, 7 April 1943, NZNA: EA1 110/3/10.
Ibid.
ADEA to Bruce, September 1942, NAA: A989/1 43/735/321.
Ibid.
Eggleston to Zimmern, 30 March 1943, BLO: Zimmern papers, MS 42, fo. 94–95.
Evatt, Foreign Policy ofAustralia, pp. 112–121.
Reynolds, ‘H. V. Evatt’, pp. 264–270.
Machtig to Cranborne, 19 February 1943, PRO: D035/1896; memorandum by Emrys-Evans, 13 January 1943, ibid.; notes of a meeting, 2 April 1943, ibid.
Johnson to Secretary of State, 18 June 1943, USNA: RG59, 847.00 389.
UK War Cabinet minutes, 13 April 1943, PRO: CAB65/38.
Letter, Batterbee to Cranborne, 22 July 1942, RHL: Batterbee papers, 6/1.
Memorandum by Maitland, ‘The U.S. War Effort in the South and Southwest Pacific’ [April 1943], op. cit.
Bell, Unequal Allies, p. 117.
Memorandum by Maitland, ‘The U.S. War Effort in the South and Southwest Pacific’ [April 1943], op. cit.; Bell, ‘Testing the Open Door Thesis in Australia’, p. 291.
Memorandum by Sir Alfred Davidson, ‘An Australian View of the Position in the Pacific: Indications of American Aims and Policy’, n.d., PRO: BT11/ 2090.
Sayers, Financial Policy, pp. 293–294, 304.
Dalton to BoT, 25 November 1941, PRO: BT11/1397; Dalton to BoT, 27 April 1942, ibid.
Broadcast by Evatt, 31 January 1943, PRO: BT11/2090; Dalton to BoT, 18 May 1943, ibid.
Report by the Interdepartmental Committee on External Relations, ‘Australia’s Position in Relation to Article VII of the Anglo-American Mutual Aid Agreement’, 20 August 1942, doc. 26, DAFP, vol. 6, pp. 49–57.
Wilson to Curtin, 18 January 1943, doc.104, DAFP, vol. 6, pp. 217–228; Prime Minister’s Department to Bruce, 11 March 1943, doc. 134, ibid., pp. 292–293; Curtin to Bruce, 18 March 1943, doc. 140, ibid., pp. 299–300; Gardner, Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy, p. 74.
Note by Bruce of conversation with Keynes, 12 January 1943, doc. 98, DAFP vol. 6, pp. 202–204.
Bell, Unequal Allies, p. 127.
Dalton to Department of Overseas Trade, 27 August 1942, PRO: BT11/2090.
Wilson to Curtin, 18 January 1943, op. cit.
Memorandum by Sir Alfred Davidson, ‘An Australian View of the Position in the Pacific: Indications of American Aims and Policy’, n.d., op. cit.
Johnson to Hornbeck, 2 June 1942, LC: Johnson papers, box 66.
State Department memorandum, ‘Australian Relations with the United States and the British Commonwealth’, 24 June 1942, USNA: RG59, lot 54D224, box 4.
Batterbee to Attlee, 16 March 1943, PRO: D0121/95.
Johnson to Hornbeck, 12 January 1943, LC: Johnson papers, box 66.
Johnson to Stettinius, 22 April 1943, ibid., box 42.
Odium to King, 21 February 1943, NAC: MG26 Jl, C7042, fo.299858-299862
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Orders, P.G.A. (2003). Defeat and Recovery. In: Britain, Australia, New Zealand and the Challenge of the United States, 1939–46. Studies in Military and Strategic History. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230289079_4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230289079_4
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