Abstract
The NPE (1986) laid “special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to equalise educational opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have been denied equality so far.”1 The policy recognized that “education is essentially for all … [it is] fundamental to our all round development, material and spiritual.”2 Education not only “furthers goals of socialism, secularism, and democracy enshrined in ‘our’ Constitution” but also “develops manpower for different levels of the economy,” which in turn guarantees “national self-reliance.”3 To this effect, to realize such overarching usefulness of education, the “Union government” decided to “accept a larger responsibility to reinforce the national and integrative character of education, to maintain quality and standards [of teachers, for example], to study and monitor the educational requirements of the country, to look to international aspects of education, culture, human resource development, and in general, to promote excellence at all levels of the educational pyramid throughout the country.”4
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Notes
Nirantar, Windows to the World: Developing a Participatory Curriculum for Rural Women (New Delhi, 1997).
See Partha Chatterjee, Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993, chapters 6 and 7), 116–157.
See Radha Kumar, History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s Rights and Feminism in India, 1800–1990 (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1993); and Aparna Basu, Feminism and Nationalism in India, 1917–1947, Journal of Women’s History, Volume 7, Number, 4 (Winter), 1995.
Neema Kudwa. “Uneasy Partnerships? Government-NGO Relations in India” (Working Paper 673, June 1996), 1–45.
Mohammed Yunus and Karl Weber, Creating a World without Poverty: Social Business and the Future of Capitalism (New York: Public Affairs, 2007), 86–90.
See Tazul Islam, Microcredit and Poverty Alleviation (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publications, 2007)
Shahidur Khandker, Fighting Poverty with Microcredit (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998)
Aminur Rahman, Women and Microcredit in Rural Bangladesh: An Anthropological Study of the Rhetoric and Realities of Grameen Bank Lending (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999)
David Hume and Arun Thankom, Microfinance: A Reader (London, New York: Routledge, 2009)
Jude L. Fernando, Microfinance: Perils and Prospects (London, New York: Routledge, 2006)
Howard Jacob-Koeger, Shortchanged: Life and Debt in the Fringe Economy (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2005).
See Patricia and Roger Jeffery, Population, Gender and Politics: Demographic Change in Rural India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997)
Moni Nag and Anrudh Jain, Female Primary Education and Fertility Reduction in India (New York: Population Council, 1995)
Krishna Kumar, Political Agenda of Education: A Study of Nationalist and Colonialist Ideas (New Delhi, Newbury Park, CA: Sage University Press, 1991)
Malvika Karlekar, A Slow Transition from Womanhood to Personhood: Can Education Help? (New Delhi: Center for Women’s Development Studies, 1989)
Karuna Chanana, Socialisation, Women, and Education, Explorations in Gender Identity (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1988).
Maitreyi Das, “Women’s Development Program in Rajasthan: A Case Study in Group Formation for Women’s Development, Population and Human Resources Department” (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1992), 80–81.
See Elizabeth Brunfiel, The Economic Anthropology of the State (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994)
Chris Shore and Susan Wright, Anthropology of Policy: Perspectives on Governance and Power (New York; Routledge, 1997)
Marc Edelman and Angelique Haugerud, The Anthropology of Development and Globalization: From Classic Political Economy to Contemporary Neoliberalism (Massachusetts, USA and Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005)
Noel Dyck and James B. Waddran, Anthropology, Public Policy, and Native Peoples in Canada (Montreal, QC; Buffalo, NY: McGill-Queens, University Press, 1993);
Benoit de Estoile and Frederico G. Neiburg, Empires, Nations, and Natives: Anthropology and State-Making (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005)
See Sharma, “Empowering Women or Institutionalizing Women’s Agency? An Ethnography of the Mahila Samakhya Education Program in India,” Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Dissertation, unpublished, 2005.
Nirantar, Windows to the World: Developing a Participatory Curriculum for Rural Women (New Delhi, 1997)
Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze, India: Development and Participation (London, New Delhi, New York: Oxford University Press, 1991, 2002), 544.
See S.K. Das, Public Office, Private Interest: Bureaucracy and Corruption in India (New York; Oxford University Press, 2001)
Peter Penner, Patronage Bureaucracy in North India (New Delhi: Chanakya Publications, 1986).
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© 2011 Shubhra Sharma
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Sharma, S. (2011). “Education for Women’s Equality and Empowerment”: The Mahila Samakhya Program (MS) (1989). In: “Neoliberalization” as Betrayal. Comparative Feminist Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230119208_2
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