Abstract
This chapter takes its title from Daniel Decator Emmett’s song “Dixie’s Land” written, legend has it, one cold and dreary evening in 1859 from the songwriter’s apartment in New York. “I wish I was in Dixie” became almost overnight a national sensation, its protagonist, an ex-slave, by turns extolling and eulogizing the virtues of the Old South. Lincoln sang it on the campaign trail but so too did Jefferson Davis at his inauguration as president of the Southern confederacy. The song reached its peak of popularity in the half century following the Civil War, one Northern journalist claiming in 1908 that “it was the most popular song in the country, irrespective of section.”1 The words on Emmett’s gravestone, laid 20 years after his death in 1904, convey the song’s enduring contribution to “the romance of reunion,” which by the end of the nineteenth century had replaced the bitter sectional rancor of the postbel-lum period, when the memory of the war was still raw and the old hatreds still ran high.2
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Notes
Howard L. Sacks and Judith Rose Sacks, Way Up North in Dixie: A Black Familys Claim to the Confederate Anthem (Chicago: Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003), 156.
See Nina Silber, The Romance of Reunion: Northerners and the South, 1865–1900 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1993), title page.
Lawrence E. Abel, Singing the New South: How Music Shaped the Confederacy, 1861–1865 (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2000), 46.
Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987), 202.
Arthur S. Link, American Epoch: A History of the United States since the 1890s, 3rd Edition (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 51.
See Henry George, Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry Into the Cause of Industrial Depression and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth; the Solution, 50th Anniversary Edition (New York: Robert Schalkenbach Foundation, 1939).
William Graebner, The Engineering of Consent: Democracy and Authority in Twentieth-Century America (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 16.
James C. Cobb, “Beyond Planters and Industrialists: A New Perspective on the New South,” Journal of Southern History 54 (1988): 55.
See also William N. Parker, “The South in the National Economy, 1865–1970,” Southern Economic Journal 46 (1980): 1019–48.
Reinhard Bendix, “Tradition and Modernity Reconsidered,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 60 (1967): 292–346.
See, for example, Donald E. Sutherland, “Former Confederates in the Post-Civil War North: An Unexplored Aspect of Reconstruction History,” Journal of Southern History 67 (1981): 393–409, and his book-length treatment, The Confederate Carpetbaggers (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1988).
Walter Hines Page, The Rebuilding of Old Commonwealths (New York: Doubleday, Page, and Company, 1902).
Edgar Gardner Murphy, The Problems of the Present South (New York: MacMillan, 1905).
Raymond B. Fosdick, Adventure in Giving: The Story of the General Education Board (New York: Harper and Row, 1962) are among the best contemporary accounts.
De Leon and Harris quoted in Paul M. Gaston, New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), 33.
Edward Pessen goes back to before the Civil War for an answer in “How Different From Each Other Were the Antebellum North and South?” American Historical Review (1980): 1119–49.
Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, “Conservatism and Progress in the Cotton Belt,” South Atlantic Quarterly 13 (January 1904): 2.
David R. Goldfield, Cotton Fields and Skyscrapers: Southern City and Region, 1607–1980 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1982), 11.
Eugene Genovese, The Slaveholder’s Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820–1860 (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1992).
The phrase appears in Mary F. Armstrong and Helen Ludlow, Hampton and its Students (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1875), 95–100.
See in Drew Gilpin Faust, ed., Ideology of Slavery: Proslavery Thought in the Antebellum South, 1830–1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1981) the chapters excerpting the writings of Stringfellow and Fitzhugh.
See also Reverand J. H. Thornwell, The Rights and Duties of Masters (Charleston: Walker and James, 1850).
Jay Mandel quoted in Harold D. Woodman, “Sequel to Slavery: The New History Views the Postbellum South,” Journal of Southern History 43 (November 1977): 548.
Mandel is echoed in Charles E. Osler, Jr., The Material Basis of the Postbellum Tenant Plantation: Historical Archeology in the South Carolina Piedmont (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1980).
Roger Ransom and Richard Sutch, “Capitalists Without Capital: The Burden of Slavery and the Impact of Emancipation,” Agricultural History 62 (1988): 133–60.
Pete Daniel carries the story up to the recent past in The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1901–1969 (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1972).
The best account of the antebellum South as a closed society is John H. Franklin, The Militant South, 1800–1861 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1956).
See Charles Grier Sellers, Jr., ed., The Southerner as American (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1960) in which ten Southern historians argue that the liberal traditions of American nationalism are to a considerable degree Southern in their origins.
William R. Taylor identifies a “Yankee-Cavalier dialectic operating in American cultural speculations” in Cavalier and Yankee: The Old South and the American National Characters (New York: George Braziller, 1961), 225.
See also Woodrow Wilson’s speeches and addresses to the New York Southern Society in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 15 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1973), 68–69 and vol. 22: 188–96.
Edward A. Pollard, The Lost Cause: A New Southern History of the War of the Confederates (New York: E. B. Treat and Company, 1867), 750–51.
Larry Edward Tise argues that many of the conservative principles of Federalism were perpetuated in the proslavery argument in his Proslavery: A History of the Defense of Slavery in America, 1701–1840 (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1987).
In Winfred B. Moore, Jr., ed., The Southern Enigma: Essays in Race, Class and Folk Culture, Contributions in American History, no. 105 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983).
As well as John David Smith, An Old Creed for the New South: Proslavery Ideology and Historiography, 1865–1918 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985).
Donald Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery: Black Indus-trial Education, 1868–1915 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978), two studies that bear out this interpretation.
For an analysis of the Christian sources of slavery and their perpetuation, see Jack P. Maddox, Jr., “The Southern Apostasy Revisited: The Significance of Pro-slavery Christianity,” Marxist Perspectives 11 (1979): 132–41.
Bertram Wyatt-Brown, “Modernizing Southern Slavery: The Pro-Slavery Argument Revisited,” in Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward, ed. J. Morgan Kousser and James McPherson (New York: Oxford Univesity Press, 1982), 29.
Harold D. Woodman, “Sequel to Slavery: The New History Views the Postbellum South,” Journal of Southern History 63, no.4 (1977): 523–54 reviews the literature on this particular point.
For a fuller development of this argument see Edmund Rufen, The Political Economy of Slavery (Washington, DC: L. Towers, 1857).
Arthur S. Link, ed., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, Vol. 22: 1911 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1977), 189.
See the section on proslavery in Dan T. Carter, When the War Was Over: The Failure of Self-Reconstruction in the South, 1865–1867 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1985), ch. 5.
In Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery: Black Industrial Education, 1868–1915 (Trenton, NJ: African World Press, 2007).
See Jonathan Zimmerman, Distilling Democracy: Alcohol Education in America’s Public Schools, 1880–1925 (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1999).
The phrase “protective philosophy” is George Fitzhugh’s from an article in DeBow’s Review in 1857.
Daniel E. Sutherland, “Southern Fraternal Organizations in the North,” Journal of Southern History 53 (1987): 588, 589.
John Lee Eighmy, “Religious Liberalism in the South during the Progressive Era,” Church History 38 (1969): 370.
Baptist minister D. C. Eddy quoted in Paul William Walesky, “Entertainment of Angels: American Baptists and Americanization, 1890–1925,” Foundations 19 (1976): 351.
Although two decades old now, the best account of these schools still remains James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1988).
Eliot quoted in “Negro Education All Important,” New York Times, February 13, 1904, Southern Education Board Records, 1898–1925, Series 5, folder 256, Southern Historical Collection, Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Quoted in Russell Marks, “Legitimating Industrial Capitalism: Philanthropy and Individual Differences,” in Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism, ed. Edward Arnove (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1980): 109.
Armstrong quoted in The Southern Workman, vol. 21 (1902): 273.
James Leloudis, “Education and the Color Line” (paper presented at the International Society for the History of Education, XXI, July 12–16, 1999, 4).
The full passage appears in Robert L. Church, Education in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1976).
For a fuller treatment of this subject, one that focuses on the reform of agricultural education, see John M. Heffron, “Nation-Building for a Venerable South: Moral and Practical Uplift in the New Agricultural Education, 1900–1920” in Essays in Twentieth-Century Southern Education: Exceptionalism and its Limits, ed. Wayne J. Urban (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999).
William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900–1920 (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1974), 105.
See also David B. Danbom, “Romantic Agrarianism in Twentieth-Century America,” Agricultural History 65 (1991): 1–12.
Saul K. Padover, Thomas Jefferson on Democracy (New York: Penguin Books, 1939), 68, 70.
See Herbert Agar, “The Task of Conservatism,” American Review 3 (April 1934):15–22.
Josiah Main, “Nature and Content of Science in the Rural School and Its Relation to Secondary Science,” NEA Proceedings and Addresses (1913): 702–3.
Scott Nearing, The New Education (New York: Row, Peterson and Company, 1915), 185.
See James A. Henretta, “Families and Farms: ‘Mentalite’ in Pre-Industrial America,” William and Mary Quarterly 35, 3rd ser. (1978): 3–32.
Roy V. Scott, The Reluctant Farmer: The Rise of Agricultural Extension to 1914 (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1970).
Christopher Clark, The Roots of Rural Capitalism: Western Massachusetts, 1780–1860 (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1990).
Allen Kulikoff, “The Transition to Capitalism in Rural America,” William and Mary Quarterly 46 (1989): 120–42.
See John Shelton Reed and Daniel Joseph Singal, eds., Regionalism and the South: Selected Papers of Rupert Vance (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1982), 56, 20.
John Milton Cooper, Walter Hines Page: The Southerner as American, 1855–1918 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1977), 242.
Abraham Flexner and Frank P. Bachman, The General Education Board: An Account of Its Activities (New York: General Education Board, 1915).
Joseph Cannon Bailey, Seaman A. Knapp: Schoolmaster of American Agriculture (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1945).
See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 314 (1924): 1.
See also A.B. Graham, “Boys’ and Girls’ Agricultural Clubs,” Agricultural History 15 (1941): 65–68.
R. R. Wright, “Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges,” Alexander’s Magazine 1 (1909): 19–22.
Charles Reagan Wilson, Baptized in Blood: The Religion of the Lost Cause, 1865–1920 (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1980), 7.
See the biography of the transplanted southern merchant Charles Broadway Rouss in Larry A. Mullen, The Napoleon of Gotham: A Study of the Life of Charles Broadway Rouss (Winchester, VA: Farmers and Merchants National Bank, 1974).
Two early studies of farm tenancy that have been useful in this context are La Wonda F. Cox, “American Agricultural Wage Earner, 1865–1900,” Agricultural History, 22 (1948): 95–114.
Oscar Zeichner, “The Transition from Slave to Free Agricultural Labor in the Southern States,” Agricultural History 13 (1939): 22–32.
Drew Gilpen Faust, “The Rhetoric and Ritual of Agriculture in Antebellum South Carolina, Journal of Southern History 55 (1979): 553, 554.
See Liberty Hyde Bailey, “Education through Agriculture,” in Proceedings of the Conference of Southern Education (New York: Committee on Publication, 1903), 116–23.
Edward Ingle, The Ogden Movement: An Educational Monopoly in the Making (Baltimore, MD: Manufacturers’ Record Publishing, 1908), 20.
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© 2010 William Ascher and John M. Heffron
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Heffron, J.M. (2010). “Old Times There Are Not Forgotten”. In: Ascher, W., Heffron, J.M. (eds) Cultural Change and Persistence. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230117334_3
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