Abstract
This book invites and enables readers to engage with the history of slavery over centuries and across continents—in particular, with its effects on enslaved women and girls and past religious complicity in it.2 I hope that this new way of viewing slavery will motivate readers to create new strategies for overcoming the vestiges of slavery that continue to shape our daily lives in ways that are often difficult to see. Consider the following modern-day experiences:
“As a descendant of African slave women,” writes Amina Wadud, a leading scholar of Islam who usually wears the Muslim headscarf in public, “I have carried the awareness that my ancestors were not given any choice to determine how much of their bodies would be exposed at the auction block or in their living conditions. So, I chose intentionally to cover my body as a means of reflecting my historical identity, personal dignity, and sexual integrity.3
I, too, live in the time of slavery, by which I mean I am living in the future created by it.
—Saidiya Hartman1
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Notes
Saidiya Hartman, Lose Your Mother: A Journey Along the Atlantic Slave Route (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2007) 133.
Amina Wadud, Inside the Gender Jihad: Women’s Reform in Islam (Oxford: Oneworld, 2006) 221.
In Hebrew, ‘agunot means “chained women” and designates wives whose husbands refuse to give them the bill of divorcement that would allow them to remarry. According to rabbinic law, only the husband may write a bill of divorcement. See Rebecca Spence, “Protesters Rally Outside a Home as Debate Continues Over Best Get Tactics,” Jewish Daily Forward, March 20, 2009, http://www.forward.com/articles/103844/ (accessed September 7, 2009). Also see the Web site of Organization for the Resolution of Agunot, http://www.getora.com/ (accessed September 7, 2009) and of the Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance, http://www.jofa.org/ (accessed September 7, 2009), which seeks a rabbinic solution to the problem.
Beate Andrees and Patrick Belser, eds., Forced Labor: Coercion and Exploitation in the Private Economy (Boulder, CO: Rienner, 2009) 181; and “Forced Labour,” under “Themes,” International Labour Organization, http://www.ilo.org/global/Themes/Forced_Labour/lang-en/index.htm (accessed October 9, 2009).
Mark A. Noll, The Civil War as a Theological Crisis (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).
The Secret Eye: The Journal of Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, 1848–1889, ed. Virginia Ingraham Burr (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990) 276–277.
Instruction of the Holy Office, June 20, 1866, signed by Pope Pius IX; cited by J[ohn] F[rancis] Maxwell, “The Development of Catholic Doctrine Concerning Slavery,” World Jurist 11 (1969–1970) 306–307.
David Ruggles, The Abrogation of the Seventh Commandment, by the American Churches [1835]
Early Negro Writing, 1760–1837, ed. Dorothy Porter (Boston: Beacon, 1971) 478–493.
“Bible View of Slavery,” in Fast Day Sermons; or, The Pulpit on the State of the Country (New York: Rudd and Carleton, 1861) 235–236, under “Jews in the Civil War” at Jewish-American History on the Web, http://www.jewish-history.com/civilwar/raphall.html (accessed November 6, 2009); discussed by Mark A. Noll, The Civil War as a Theological Crisis (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006) 3. Raphall notes that the English translation used by his congregants had “servant of servants” for ‘eved ‘avadim, but he himself offered the rendering “meanest of slaves.”
“David Einhorn’s Response to Rabbi Morris Raphall’s ‘A Biblical View of Slavery’” (1861), Jewish-American History on the Web, under “Jews in the Civil War,” http://www.jewish-history.com/civilwar/einhorn.html (accessed April 12, 2008).
See also the summary of Barbara D. Savage’s paper “The Same-Sex Marriage Debate in the African American Churches: An Historical Perspective” (presented at the “Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacy Conference,” Brandeis University, October 16, 2006), at the Feminist Sexual Ethics Project Web site, under “How Slavery Has Shaped Our Understandings of Marriage and Friendship,” http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/Conference/Conf-main4.html#savage (accessed December 6, 2009).
Basil of Caesarea recognized that enslaved girls and women could be violated by their own masters, but wives were not allowed to divorce their husbands for that reason. Canonical Letter 199, canon 49, in St. Basil: The Letters, vol. 3, trans. Roy J. Deferrari, 134–135. On sexual relations between male slaveholders and their enslaved women or girls, see Margaret Y. MacDonald, “Slavery, Sexuality, and House Churches: A Reassessment of Colossians 3.18–4.1 in Light of New Research on the Roman Family,” New Testament Studies 53 (2007) 94–113, and many essays in this volume, along with the literature to which they refer.
On the ambivalence of enslaved motherhood as represented in music, see Judith Tick and Melissa J. de Graaf, “Slave Lullabies in the American South: Mothers’ Voices Recovered,” Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/slavery/slave-lullaby/slav-lul-index.html (accessed December 6, 2009).
Ambrose, On Abraham 4.26; Ambrose, On Abraham, trans. Theodosia Tomkinson (Etna, CA: Center for Traditionalist Orthodox Studies, 2000) 14.
Basil of Caesarea acknowledged that masters can force sex on their enslaved women, but he chose not to penalize Christians for so doing, instead simply pronouncing these women not guilty; Canonical Letters 199, canon 49, in St. Basil: The Letters, vol. 3, trans. Roy J. Deferrari, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1930). According to the Apostolic Constitutions 8.32.12 (early fourth century), a Christian man with a concubine (either enslaved or free) is to stop extramarital sexual relations with her and marry her legally or face excommunication, but the Apostolic Constitutions stop short of penalizing him for any past sexual acts; Marcel Metzger, ed. and trans., Les Constitutions apostoliques, vol. 3; Sources chrétiennes 336 (Paris: Du Cerf, 1987) 238–239.
Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. David Waldstreicher (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2002) 195; discussed in Mia Bay, “Love, Sex, Slavery, and Sally Hemings,” in this volume, 191.
Thomas Jefferson, The Jefferson Bible: The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth (1904; reprint, Boston: Beacon, 1989) 46.
Thomas Jefferson to John Wayles Eppes, Monticello, 1820, in Thomas Jefferson’s Farm Book with Comments and Relevant Extracts from Other Writings, ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953) 45–46.
Sharon Block, Rape and Sexual Power in Early America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006) 65.
As New Testament scholar Clarice J. Martin writes of enslaved persons in the Roman Empire, “There was no way they could escape the uninhibited supervisory gaze of their owners.” Martin, “The Eyes Have It: Slaves in the Community of Christ-Believers,” in A People’s History of Christianity, vol. 1, Christian Origins, ed. Richard A. Horsley (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005) 233.
Harriet A. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl: Written by Herself: Contexts, Criticism, ed. Nellie Y. McKay and Frances Smith Foster (1861; New York: Norton, 2001) 29.
Acta Andrea, ed. Jean-Marc Prieur, Corpus Christianorum, Series Apocryphorum 5-–6 (Tournhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1989). Prieur dates the final edition of the Acts of Andrew to the second half of the second century, Acta Andrea, vol. 5, 414.
English translation in New Testament Apocrypha, ed. Wilhelm Schneemelcher, trans. R. McL. Wilson, vol. 2 (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox, 1992) 101–151.
Civil Code, article 1468. See Judith Kelleher Schafer, Slavery, the Civil Law, and the Supreme Court of Louisiana (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994) 185.
Adrienne D. Davis, “The Private Law of Race and Sex: An Antebellum Perspective,” Stanford Law Review 51 (1999) 221–288.
Lalita Tademy’s historical novel Cane River (New York: Warner, 2001), which is based on cryptically brief family records, vividly helps readers to imagine how enslaved girls could have hoped that their relationship with the master’s son or another free white boy or man would be different—that he truly cared for her and would care for their children—even as their respective mothers and grandmothers realistically planned for their futures. I thank Barbara Brooten Job for this reference.
Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars: Vespasian 3; Suetonius, vol. 2, trans. J. C. Rolfe, Loeb Classical Library (rev. ed., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997) 271. As a man of the senatorial class, Vespasian was not allowed to marry a freedwoman.
Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Doubleday, 2008). On complaints of involuntary servitude and peonage filed between 1961 and 1963
Harry H. Shapiro, “Involuntary Servitude: The Need for a More Flexible Approach,” Rutgers Law Review 19 (1964–1965) 65–85, who outlined the enormous hurdles faced by plaintiffs in establishing that involuntary servitude or peonage was occurring.
Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), shows that women, including feminists, were involved in the Klan. She documents the Klan’s emphasis on attending church and its increasing anti-Catholicism. Blee’s illustration number 11 (from the Library of Congress) of a 1924 Klan baby christening is particularly chilling.
Lisa Cardyn, “Sexualized Racism/Gendered Violence: Outraging the Body Politic in the Reconstruction South,” Michigan Law Review 100 (2002) 675–867. For a summary of Lisa Cardyn’s paper “Practices of Sexual Terrorism in the Reconstruction South” (presented at the “Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacy Conference,” Brandeis University, October 16, 2006), visit the Feminist Sexual Ethics Project Web site, http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/Conference/Conf-main3.html#cardyn (accessed September 19, 2009).
William Grimes, Life of William Grimes, the Runaway Slave: Written by Himself (New York: 1825), available at Documenting the American South, http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/grimes25/menu.html (accessed December 1, 2009). Grimes’s work forms a rare exception in its straightforward depiction of the range of human moral behavior. I thank Joan Bryant for this reference.
See the essays by Dorothy Roberts, Emilie M. Townes, Dwight N. Hopkins, Mia Bay, and Catherine Clinton in this volume, as well as the unusual 1859 Virginia case, Commonwealth v. Ned, in which the judge joined the cases of an enslaved African American girl and a free European American girl who complained of sexual assault by an enslaved man. The court found the man, named Ned, guilty. For a summary of Wilma King’s paper “‘He said He Would Give Us Some Flowers’: Sexual Violations, Girls, and the Law in the Antebellum South,” (presented at the “Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacy Conference,” Brandeis University, October 16, 2006), which analyzes Commonwealth v. Ned, visit the Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/Conference/Conf-main3.html#king (accessed September 19, 2009). In response to George [a slave] v. State, 37 Miss. 316 [1859], which quashed the indictment of an enslaved man for raping an enslaved girl under the age of ten, the Mississippi legislature passed a highly unusual statute that criminalized the rape of a “female negro or mulatto,” if she were under the age of twelve and the assailant a “negro or mulatto” (Mississippi Session Acts, ch. 62, p. 102 [1860]). See Helen Tunnicliff Catterall, ed., Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro, vol. 3 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute, 1932) 363. I thank Wilma King for this reference.
See Helen Tunnicliff Catterall, ed., Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro, vol. 3 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute, 1932) 363. I thank Wilma King for this reference.
I thank Anita F. Hill for the idea to commission research on this topic and for her collaboration in supervising it with a grant from the Ford Foundation. See Elizabeth Kennedy, Victim Race and Rape (Waltham, MA: Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, Brandeis University, 2003), http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/slavery/slav-us/slav-us-articles/slav-us-art-kennedy-full.pdf (accessed August 26, 2009)
Jennifer C. Nash, Black Women and Rape: A Review of the Literature (Waltham, MA: Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, Brandeis University, 2009), http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/slavery/slav-us/slav-us-articles/Nash2009-6-12.pdf (accessed August 26, 2009).
See also Frances Smith Foster, ed., Love and Marriage in Early African America (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England/Northeastern University Press, 2007); and ‘Til Death or Distance Do Us Part: Love and Marriage in African America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
John Francis Maxwell. Slavery and the Catholic Church: The History of Catholic Teaching Concerning the Moral Legitimacy of the Institution of Slavery (Chichester: Barry Rose, in association with the Anti-Slavery Society for the Protection of Human Rights, 1975) 11.
Pope Nicholas V, Romanus pontifex (January 8, 1455), papal bull granting King Alfonso V of Portugal the rights named above; and Pope Alexander VI, Inter caetera (May 3, 1493), papal bull granting Castille’s rulers and successors the same rights. See John T. Noonan, Jr., A Church that Can and Cannot Change: The Development of Catholic Moral Teaching (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005) 62–65, and for the fuller history, chaps. 4–17.
John T. Noonan, Jr., A Church that Can and Cannot Change: The Development of Catholic Moral Teaching (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005) 62–65, and for the fuller history, chaps. 4–17.
See also the documentation by Kenneth J. Zanca, ed., American Catholics and Slavery: 1789–1866: An Anthology of Primary Documents (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994).
Stephen Bates, “Church Apologises for Benefiting from Slave Trade,” Guardian, February 9, 2006, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2006/feb/09/religion.world (accessed October 4, 2009). For the full speech, see “Bicentenary of the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade: Speech to General Synod,” February 8, 2006, Archbishop of Canterbury Web site, under “Articles, Interviews, and Speeches,” http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/315/315 (accessed October 4, 2009).
Supporters include the NAACP, Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Nation of Islam, and National Baptist Convention. Several largely white religious denominations have also moved toward support for reparations. In 2001, the United Church of Christ General Synod and the Disciples of Christ General Assembly passed a joint resolution on reparations for slavery, which calls upon congregations, regions, agencies, and national ministries “to join in active study and education on issues dealing with reparations for slavery.” The United Church of Christ version amended the resolution to distinguish between reparations and restitution, stating that reparations “can never be singularly reducible to monetary terms.” See “The Twenty-Third General Synod Adopts the Resolution ‘A Call for Study on Reparations for Slavery,’” United Church of Christ, http://www.ucc.org/synod/resolutions/CALL-FOR-STUDY-ON-REPARATIONS-FOR-SLAVERY.pdf (accessed October 4, 2009). In 2004, “[d]elegates to the top legislative assembly of the United Methodist Church voted to support a study of reparations for African Americans and to petition the vice president and House of Representatives to support the passage and signing of House Resolution 40.” See Linda Green, “United Methodist Church Supports Reparations for African Americans,” May 7, 2004, United Methodist News Service, http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=17&mid=4711 (accessed October 4, 2009). Also in 2004, the Presbyterian Church (USA) “adopted the report of the Task Force to Study Reparations,” which states: “The point is not to indict any particular group of people for such atrocities. Rather, as members of the same body, the body of Christ, we must all bear equal responsibility for the sins of our past. The Scriptures call us to bear one another’s burdens and so fulfill the law of Christ (Gal. 6:2, NRSV). We do so first, by remembering what we have done and failed to do; second, by doing everything in our power to restore the human dignity and material loss of our sisters and brothers; third, by repairing the moral and spiritual breach that was formed between the offended and the offenders; and fourth, by sincerely attempting to reconcile all differences that are directly related to our behaviors of the past.” See Report of the Task Force to Study Reparations, http://www.pcusa.org/racialjustice/pdf/reparations-paper-final2005.pdf (accessed October 4, 2009). In 2006, the General Convention of the Episcopal Church (USA) passed a resolution acknowledging its complicity in slavery and in segregation and the economic benefits it derived from slavery, and it urged its members to take measures to be “‘the repairer of the breach’ (Isaiah 58:12), both materially and relationally.” See “Study Economic Benefits Derived from Slavery,” Archives of the Episcopal Church, resolution number 2006-A123, http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution-complete.pl?resolution=2006-A123 (accessed October 4, 2009). The remarkable documentary Traces of the Trade: A Story from the Deep North, directed by Katrina Browne (Ebb Pod Productions, 2008), has helped the Episcopal and other churches in these efforts. Browne, a descendant of the largest slave-trading family in the United States, a family that was heavily involved in the Episcopal Church, retraced the triangle trade of her ancestors, from Rhode Island to Ghana to Cuba and then back to the United States, seeking ways to repair the damage to today’s descendants of those enslaved by her ancestors. Visit http://www.tracesofthetrade.org/ (accessed October 4, 2009).
These include the Southern Baptist Convention, which in 1995 called on convention delegates to “lament and repudiate historic acts of evil such as slavery from which we continue to reap a bitter harvest”; Christian Century, July 5, 1995. In 2000, according to the National Catholic Reporter, sisters from three Roman Catholic orders in Kentucky—the Dominicans, the Lorettos, and the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth—held a reconciliation service to ask “forgiveness for their orders’ participation in slavery”; Dennis Coday, “Exhibit Aims to Dispel ‘Myth’ About Sisters,” February 17, 2009. On Jesuit slave holding, see, e.g., R. Emmett Curran, “Splendid Poverty: Jesuit SlaveHolding in Maryland, 1805–1838,” in Catholics in the Old South: Essays in Church and Culture, ed. Randall Miller and Jon Waklyn (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1983) 125–146; and Thomas Murphy, Jesuit Slaveholding in Maryland, 1717–1838 (New York: Routledge, 2001).
Thomas Murphy, Jesuit Slaveholding in Maryland, 1717–1838 (New York: Routledge, 2001).
Callie House led an organization of 300,000 formerly enslaved persons to petition the government for an old-age pension in recognition of their unpaid work during slavery. Mary Frances Berry, My Face Is Black Is True: Callie House and the Struggle for Ex-Slave Reparations (New York: Knopf, 2005).
Maria W. Stewart, “Productions of Mrs. Maria W. Stewart Presented to the First African Baptist Church & Society of the City of Boston,” in Spiritual Narratives, ed. Schomburg Library of Nineteenth-Century Black Women Writers (1835; reprint, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) 17–21. See Dwight N. Hopkins, “Enslaved Black Women: A Theology of Justice and Reparations,” in this volume.
See, e.g., Melvin L. Oliver and Thomas M. Shapiro, Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality (New York: Routledge, 2006); and Thomas M. Shapiro, The Hidden Cost of Being African American: How Wealth Perpetuates Inequality (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
Thomas M. Shapiro, The Hidden Cost of Being African American: How Wealth Perpetuates Inequality (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
For the debate on reparations, see, for example, Michael T. Martin and Marilyn Yaquinto, eds., Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007)
Alfred L. Brophy, Reparations: Pro and Con (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006)
Pamela D. Bridgewater, “Ain’t I a Slave: Slavery, Reproductive Abuse, and Reparations,” UCLA Women’s Law Journal 14 (2005) 89–161
Raymond A. Winbush, ed., Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations (New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003)
David Horowitz, Uncivil Wars: The Controversy over Reparations for Slavery (San Francisco: Encounter, 2002)
Adrienne D. Davis, “The Case for United States Reparations to African Americans,” Human Rights Brief 7:3 (2000) 3–5
Randall Robinson, The Debt: What America Owes to Blacks (New York: Dutton/Penguin, 2000).
Richard Slawsky, “Bank One Seeks to Make Amends for Past Ties to Slavery,” Louisiana Weekly, February 14–20, 2005, section A. (J. P. Morgan Chase assumed responsibility because it had bought out Bank One.)
Angela Y. Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Random House, 1981) 3–29.
Deborah Gray White, Ar’n’t I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985).
Limited space permits me to mention only a few of the many contributions: Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Norton, 1984)
Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic, 1985)
Jean Fagan Yellin, ed., Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl: Written by Herself, by Harriet A. Jacobs, ed. L. Maria Child (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987)
Katie G. Cannon, Black Womanist Ethics, American Academy of Religion Series 60 (Atlanta: Scholars, 1988)
Melton A. McLaurin, Celia: A Slave (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991)
Delores S. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness: The Challenge of Womanist God-Talk (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1993)
Karen Baker-Fletcher, “The Difference Race Makes: Sexual Harassment and the Law in the Thomas-Hill Hearings,” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 10 (1994) 7–15
Karen Baker-Fletcher, “Womanism, Afro-centrism, and the Reconstruction of Black Womanhood,” Journal of the Interdenominational Center 22 (1995) 183–197
Katie Geneva Cannon, Katie’ Cannon: Womanism and the Soul of the Black Community (New York: Continuum, 1995)
Wilma King, Stolen Childhood: Slave Youth in Nineteenth-Century America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995)
David Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine, eds., More Than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996)
Brenda E. Stevenson, Life in Black and White: Family and Community in the Slave South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996)
Catherine Clinton and Michele Gillespie, eds., The Devil’s Lane: Sex and Race in the Early South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997)
Charlotte Pierce-Baker, Surviving the Silence: Black Women’s Stories of Rape (New York: Norton, 1998)
Darlene Clark Hine and Kathleen Thompson, A Shining Thread of Hope: The History of Black Women in America (New York: Broadway, 1998)
Kelly Brown Douglas, Sexuality and the Black Church: A Womanist Perspective (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1999)
Martha Hodes, ed., Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History (New York: New York University Press, 1999)
Thandeka, Learning to Be White: Money, Race, and God in America (New York: Continuum, 1999)
Traci C. West, Wounds of the Spirit: Black Women, Violence, and Resistance Ethics (New York: New York University Press, 1999)
Carolyn M. West, ed., Violence in the Lives of Black Women: Battered, Black, and Blue (New York: Haworth, 2002)
Anthony B. Pinn and Dwight N. Hopkins, eds., Loving the Body: Black Religious Studies and the Erotic (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004)
Patricia Hill Collins, Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism (New York: Routledge, 2004)
Patrick Minges, Far More Terrible for Women: Personal Accounts of Women in Slavery (Winston-Salem, NC: Blair, 2006)
Traci C. West, Disruptive Christian Ethics: When Racism and Women’s Lives Matter (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2006)
Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York: Norton, 2008)
Renee K. Harrison, Enslaved Women and the Art of Resistance in Antebellum America (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
M. Shawn Copeland, Enfleshing Freedom: Body, Race, and Being (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010).
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Brooten, B.J. (2010). Introduction. In: Brooten, B.J. (eds) Beyond Slavery. Black Religion/Womanist Thought/Social Justice. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230113893_1
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