Skip to main content

The Telecommunications Act of 1996 and the Overdevelopment of Gangsta Rap

  • Chapter
African American Culture and Legal Discourse

Abstract

This chapter explores how the Telecommunications Act of 1996 has contributed to the proliferation of gangsta rap on broadcast radio and has affected hip-hop by dissuading the voices of more “positive” rappers who might contest gangsta rap. Specifically, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 has contributed to stifling the discourse within the hip-hop community by increasing and solidifying corporate media conglomeration and control of the nation’s radio airwaves. Such media conglomeration has been instrumental in creating the dominant gangsta image that has become, for the most part, the de facto voice of contemporary hip-hop culture. Moreover, the Telecommunications Act has contributed to limiting access to the radio airwaves to those that would challenge gangsta rap and the resulting gangsta image, which is steeped in racial and sexist stereotypes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Bibliography

  • Aoki, Keith. “‘Foreign-ness’ & Asian American Identities: Yellowface, World War II, Propaganda, and Bifurcated Racial Stereotypes.” Asian Pacific American Law Journal 4, no. 1 (1996): 1–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, Moya. “Dilemma.” Wiretap, May 24, 2004. http://www.alternet.org/wiretap/18760.

  • Baker, Edwin C. “Media Concentration: Giving Up On Democracy.” Florida Law Review 54 (2002): 839–919.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, Davarian L. “Black Empires, White Desires: The Spatial Politics of Identity in the Age of Hip-Hop.” In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 159–76. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bednarski, Anastasia. “From Diversity to Duplication Mega-Mergers and the Failure of the Marketplace Model under the Telecommunications Act of 1996.” Federal Communications Law Journal 55(2003): 237–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black Commentator. “There Needs to be a Movement: Political Action in the Hip Hop Era.” June 24, 2004. http://www.blackcommentator.com/96/96_cover_hip_hop.html.

  • Boehlert, Eric, “Radio’s Big Bully,” Salon.com Arts & Entertainment, April 30, 2001, http://archive.salon.com/ent/feature/2001/04/3 0/clear_channel/print.html.

  • Chang, Jeff. Can’t Stop Won’t Stop. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • CNN/Money. “Will Smith, Jay-Z Back Beauty Line,” CNN, March 18, 2005, http://money.cnn.com/2005/05/18/news/newsmakers/cosmetics.

  • Coates, Ta-Nehisi. “Keepin It Real: Selling the Myth of Black Male Violence, Long Its Expiration Date.” Village Voice, June 4, 2003. http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0323,coates,44584,1.html.

  • Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, Ronald K. L., and David M. Skover. “Commerce and Communication.” Texas Law Review71 (1993): 697–746.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coombe, Rosemary J. “Objects of Property and Subjects of Politics: Intellectual Property Laws and Democratic Dialogue.” Texas Law Review 69 (1991): 1853–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coombe, Rosemary J. “Room for Manoeuver: Toward a Theory of Practice in Critical Legal Studies.” Law and Social inquiry 14 (1989): 69–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coombe, Rosemary J. “Tactics of Appropriation and the Politics of Recognition in Late Modern Democracies.” Political Theory 21 (1993): 411–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coombe, Rosemary, and Jonathan Cohen. “The Law and Late Modern Culture: Reflections on Between Facts and Norms from the Perspective of Critical Culture Legal Studies.” Denver University Law Review 76 (1999) 1029–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • D., Davey. “Hip Hop s Ultimate Battle: Race and the Politics of Divide and Conquer.” http://www.daveyd.com/articleultimatebattlerace.html.

  • D., Davey. “KMEL Announces SummerJam Line Up.” Daveyd.com, November 18, 2008. http://www.daveyd.com/summerjam.html.

  • Dawson, Michael C. “A Black Counterpublic?: Economic Earthquakes, Racial Agenda(s), and Black Politics.” The Black Public Sphere: A Public Culture Book, edited by The Black Public Sphere Collective, 199–228. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, Wendy. “Radio.” Murder Dog, August 25, 2006. http://www.murderdog.corn/ august%5Frapcointelpro/radio.html.

  • Dotinga, Randy. “‘Good Mornih’ (Your Town Here).” Wired News, August 6, 2002. http://www.wirEd.com/news/business/1,54037-0.html.

  • Drale, Christina S. Communication Media in a Democratic Society, Communication Law and Policy 9 (2004): 213–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dyson, Michael Eric. “The Culture of Hip Hop.” In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 61–68. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiss, Owen. “Free Speech and Social Structure.” Iowa Law Review 71 (1986): 1405–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folami, Akilah. “Deliberative Democracy on Air: Reinvigorate Localism—Resuscitate Radio’s Subversive Past.” The Federal Communications Law Journal (forthcoming).

    Google Scholar 

  • Forman, Murray, and Mark Anthony Neal, eds. That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foucault, Michael. Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972–1977, edited by Colin Gordon. New York: Pantheon Books, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Futureofmusic.org. “Radio Deregulation: Has It Served Citizens and Musicians?” November 18, 2008. http://www.mtureofmusic.org/irnages/FMCradiosmdy.pdf.

  • Gregory, Eben. “Ludacris Lands Show On XM Satellite Radio.” Allhiphop.com, September 29, 2005. http://www.allhiphop.com/Hiphopnews/?ID=4887.

  • Harris, Angela P. “Race and Essentialism in Feminist Legal Theory.” Stanford Law Review 42 (1990): 581–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hebdige, Dick. “Rap and Hip-Hop: The New York Connection.” In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 223–32. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lears, T. J. “The Concept of Cultural Hegemony: Problems and Possibilities.” The American History Review 90 (1985): 567–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jadakiss. “Why.” Kiss of Death. June 22, 2004. CD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jam Billy. “Pirate Fuckin’ Radio.” Hiphopslam.com, November 18, 2008. http://www.hiphopslam.com/scratch/pirate_fuckin_radio.html.

  • Jay-Z. “Moment of Clarity”. The Black Album. November 13, 2003. CD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judy, R. A. T. “On the Question of Nigga Authenticity.” In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 105–18. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, Robin D. G. “Looking for the “Real” Nigga: Social Scientists Construct the Ghetto.” In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 119–38. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Light, Alan. “About a Salary or Reality?—Rap’s Recurrent Conflict.” In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 137–46. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lusane, Clarence. “Rap, Race, and Politics.” In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 351–62. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Madow, Michael. “Private Ownership of Public Image: Popular Culture and Publicity Rights.” California Law Review 81 (1993): 125–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merry, Sally E. “Resistance and the Cultural Power of Law.” Law and Society Review 29 (1995): 11–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mezey, Naomi, and Mark C. Niles. “Screening the Law: Ideology and Law in American Popular Culmre.” Columbia Journal of Law and the Arts 28 (2005): 91–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • MSNBC. “Families Swap Race on ‘Black, White.’” February 27, 2006. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11394595/.

  • Neal, Mark Anthony. “Postindustrial Soul: Black Popular Music at the Crossroads.” In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 363–88. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neal, Mark Anthony. “Rhythm and Bullshit? The Slow Decline of R&B., Part Three: Media Conglomeration, Label Consolidation and Payola.” Popmatters.com June 30, 2005. http://popmatters.com/music/features/050630-randb3.shtml.

  • Ortner, Michael. “Serving a Different Master—The Decline of Diversity and the Public Interest in American Radio in the Wake of the Telecommunications Act of 1996.” Hamline Journal of Public Law and Policy 22 (2000): 139–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, Chuck. “Wiesenthal Center Denounces Ice Cube’s Album.” Los Angeles Times, November 2, 1991, sec. CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prindle, Gregory M. “No Competition: How Radio Consolidation Has Dismissed Diversity and Sacrificed Localism.” Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal 14 (2003): 279–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prometheus Radio. “About Us.” November 18, 2008. http://www.prometheusradio.org/about_us.

  • Rainey, R. Randall, and William Rehg. “Marketplace of Ideas, the Public Interest, and Federal Regulation of the Electronic Media: Implications of Habermas’ Theory of Democracy.” Sou them California Law Review 69 (1996): 1923–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richburg, Chris, and Clarence Burke. “Oprah Responds to Hip Hop Criticism.” Allhiphop. com, May 12, 2006. http://www.allhiphop.com/hiphopnews/? ID=5667.

  • Rose, Tricia. Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samuels, David. “The Rap on Rap: The ‘Black Music’ That Isn’t Either.” In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 147–54. New York: Routledge, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shawn Carter Scholarship Foundation Web site. “Company Goals.” November 18, 2007. http://scartersf.org/#.

  • Sheridan, Jim, director. Get Rich or Die Tryin! DVD. New York: Paramount, 2005

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong, Nolan. “50 Cent Negotiating with Apple for Branded Line of Home Computers.” AllHipHop.com, June 19,2006. http://www.allhiphop.com/Hiphopnews/?ID=5798.

  • Strong, Nolan. Jin Says Rap Career Is Over, Records “I Quit.’” Allhiphop.com, August 25, 2006. http://www.karazen.com/news/may05/j in_5_20.php.

  • Stychin, Carl. “Identities, Sexualities, and the Postmodern Subject: An Analysis of Artistic Funding by the National Endowment for the Arts.” Cardozo Arts and Entertainment Law Journal 12 (1994): 79–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tardio, Andres. “E-40 Gets Down With MySpace.com.” Hiphopdx.com, February 21, 2006. http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.3905/p.all/print.true.

  • Thomas, Chris. “Buckwild: Still Diggin.” AUhiphop.com, August 25, 2006. http://www.allhiphop.com/features/?ID=1434.

  • Van Alstyne, Adam J. “Clear Control: An Antitrust Analysis Of Clear Channel’s Radio And Concert Empire.” Minnesota Law Review 88 (2004): 627–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Varona, Anthony E. “Out of Thin Air: Using First Amendment Public Forum Analysis to Redeem American Broadcasting Regulation.” University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 39 (2006): 149–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisstuch, Liza. “Sexism in Rap Sparks Black Magazine to Say ‘Enough!’” Christian Science Monitor, January 12, 2005, http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0112/p11s01-almp.html.

  • Wikipedia.org. “KMEL.” November 18, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KMEL.

  • Wiley, Richard E. “Communications Law Overview: Recent Developments in Convergence, Competition and Consolidation.” PLI/Pat 597 (2000): 395–853.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willens, Kathy. “Black College Women Take Aim at Rappers.” USA Today, April 23, 2004. http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2004-04-23-spelman-protest-rappers_x.htm.k.

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Lovalerie King Richard Schur

Copyright information

© 2009 Lovalerie King and Richard Schur

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Folami, A.N. (2009). The Telecommunications Act of 1996 and the Overdevelopment of Gangsta Rap. In: King, L., Schur, R. (eds) African American Culture and Legal Discourse. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230101722_13

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics